Hmong Studies Virtual Library

HMONG STUDIES VIRTUAL LIBRARY

A program of the Hmong Cultural Center Museum and Library, St. Paul, MN.

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Classic Hmong Refugee Resettlement Research from the University of Minnesota

Hmong-Related Dissertations and Theses Online from the University of Minnesota's Digital Conservancy

Hmong-Related Theses online from University of Wisconsin-Stout

Other Theses/Dissertations

Other Research Publications

Classic Hmong Studies Publications from the Refugee Educator's Network Website

Hmong Studies Journal Articles

Journal of Southeast American Education and Advancement Articles

Publications Produced by the Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center, Hmong Cultural Center (St. Paul) and/or submitted by Contributors

Other Online Publications Related to Hmong Studies

Other Websites with Research Publications Related to Hmong Studies

Classic Hmong Refugee Resettlement Research from the University of Minnesota

Title: The Hmong in the West. Authors: Bruce T. Downing and Douglas P. Olney, Editors. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1982. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 420 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: Papers of the 1981 Hmong Research Conference are published here. The papers cover a wide range of subjects and include a brief history of the Hmong people and why they left Laos, traditional Hmong culture and cultural change, Hmong linguistics, problems of English language training, Hmong communities in the United States, and problems of resettlement. Papers presented at a 1984 conference on research onthe Hmong in the United States are collected in this book. The 24 papers are organized around four central themes (among culture and change, adaptation to a new society, language and literacy, and health care issues). Titles and authors are: (1) "Stages of Hmong Cultural Adaptation" (William A. Smalley); (2) "The Hmong of Laos:Economic Factors in the Refugee Exodus and Return" (Robert Cooper);(3) "Processes of Identity Maintenance in Hmong Society" (Timothy Dunnigan); (4) "Culture and Adaptation: Hmong Refugees in Australia"(Gary Yia Lee); (5) "The Miao in Cnntemporary China" (Louisa Schein);(6) "Geomancy as an Aspect of Upland-Lowland Relationships" (NicholasTapp); (7) "Training Hmong Women: For Marginal Work or Entry into the Mainstream" (Sarah R. Mason); (8) "Changes in Hmong Refugee Marital Attitudes in America" (William H. Meredith and George P. Rowe); (9)"Resolving Sexual Assault: Hmong and the American Legal System" (BethL. Goldstein); (10) "The Hmong in Isla Vista: Obstacles and Enhancements to Adjustment" (Catherine Stoumpos Gross); (11)"Factors Contributing to a Split within a Clientelistic Needlework Cooperative Engaged in Refugee Resettlement" (Nancy D. Donnelly); (12) "The Hmong Resettlement Study: A Symposium" (Includes six shortpages by severalauthors); (13) Cooperative Engaged in "Two-Word Expressives in White Hmong" (Martha Ratliff); (14) "Verb Serialization in Hmong" (LaurelOwensby); (15) "The Morpheme 'Rom': A First Analysis and Look at Embedding in Huang" (Annie Jaisser); (16) "Zero Anaphora and Topic Prominence in Mang" (Judith Wheaton Fuller); (17) "Investigating Literacy: Approaches, Tools, and Their Consequences for Inquiry"(Gail Weinstein); (18) "Factors in Individual Acquisition of English:A Longitudinal Study of Hmong Adults" (Karen Reed Green and Stephen Reder); (19) "Shamanism in the Context of Hmong Resettlement" (JaquesLemoine); (20) "Guidelines for Mental Health Professionals to Help Hmong Clients Seek Traditional Healing Treatment" (Bruce Thowpaou Bliatout); (21) Hmong Perception of Illness and TraditionalWays of Healing" (Xoua Thao); (22) 'Sleep Disturbances and Sudden Death of Hmong Refugees: A Report on Field Work Conducted in the Ban Vinai Refugee Camp" (Ronald G. Munger); (23) "A Cross-Cultural Assessment of Maternal-Child Interaction: Links to Health and Development"(Charles N. Oberg, Sharon Muret-Wagstaff, Shirley G. Moore and Brenda Cumming); (24) "Undue Lead Absorption in Hmong Children" (Karl Chun and Amos S. Deinard); (25) "Attitudes of Hmong toward a Medical Research Project" (Marshall Hurlich, Neal R. Holtan, and Ronald G.Munger). (KH)

Title: The Hmong in Transition. Authors: Glenn Hendricks and others, editors. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 459 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: Papers presented at a 1984 conference on research on the Hmong in the United States are collected in this book. The 24 papers are organized around four central themes (Hmong culture and change, adaptation to a new society, language and literacy, and health care issues). Titles and authors are: (1) "Stages of Hmong Cultural Adaptation" (William A. Smalley); (2) "The Hmong of Laos: Economic Factors in the Refugee Exodus and Return" (Robert Cooper); (3) "Processes of Identity Maintenance in Hmong Society" (Timothy Dunnigan); (4) "Culture and Adaptation: Hmong Refugees in Australia" (Gary Yia Lee); (5) "The Miao in Contemporary China" (Louisa Schein); (6) "Geomancy as an Aspect of Upland-Lowland Relationships" (Nicholas Tapp); (7) "Training Hmong Women: For Marginal Work or Entry into the Mainstream" (Sarah R. Mason); (8) "Changes in Hmong Refugee Marital Attitudes in America" (William H. Meredith and George P. Rowe); (9) "Resolving Sexual Assault: Hmong and the American Legal System" (Beth L. Goldstein); (10) "The Hmong in Isla Vista: Obstacles and Enhancements to Adjustment" (Catherine Stoumpos Gross); (11) "Factors Contributing to a Split within a Clientelistic Needlework Cooperative Engaged in Refugee Resettlement" (Nancy D. Donnelly); (12) "The Hmong Resettlement Study: A Symposium" (Includes six short pages by several authors); (13) Cooperative Engaged in "Two-Word Expressives in White Hmong" (Martha Ratliff); (14) "Verb Serialization in Hmong" (Laurel Owensby); (15) "The Morpheme 'Kom': A First Analysis and Look at Embedding in Hmong" (Annie Jaisser); (16)"Zero Anaphora and Topic Prominence in Hmong" (Judith Wheaton Fuller); (17) "Investigating Literacy: Approaches, Tools, and Their Consequences for Inquiry" (Gail Weinstein); (18) "Factors in Individual Acquisition of English: A Longitudinal Study of Hmong Adults" (Karen Reed Green and Stephen Reder); (19) "Shamanism in the Context of Hmong Resettlement" (Jaques Lemoine); (20) "Guidelines for Mental Health Professionals to Help Hmong Clients Seek Traditional Healing Treatment" (Bruce Thowpaou Bliatout); (21) "Hmong Perception of Illness and Traditional Ways of Healing" (Xoua Thao); (22) "Sleep Disturbances and Sudden Death of Hmong Refugees: A Report on Field Work Conducted in the Ban Vinai Refugee Camp" (Ronald G. Munger); (23) "A Cross-Cultural Assessment of Maternal-Child Interaction: Links to Health and Development" (Charles N. Oberg, Sharon Muret-Wagstaff, Shirley G. Moore and Brenda Cumming); (24) "Undue Lead Absorption in Hmong Children" (Karl Chun and Amos S. Deinard); (25) "Attitudes of Hmong toward a Medical Research Project" (Marshall Hurlich, Neal R. Holtan, and Ronald G. Munger). (KH)

Title: The Hmong resettlement study, Volume 1, Final Report. Author: Bruce T. Downing, Douglas P. Olney, Sarah R. Mason and Glenn Hendricks, et al. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 318 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: The Hmong Resettlement Study is a national project funded by the U.S. Office of Refugee Resettlement. The study is the joint undertaking of Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (Portland, Oregon), the University of Minnesota and Lao Family Community (Santa Ana, California). The major purposes of the Study are to examine closely the resettlement of Hmong refugees in the United States, focusing on the following issues: What has been the resettlement experience of the Hmong?

How are the Hmong faring in terms of employment, dependence, and adjustment?
Are there areas of employment in which the Hmong have been particularly successful?
What do resettlement workers and the Hmong regard as the major impediments to effective Hmong resettlement and self-sufficiency?
What role does secondary migration play in the resettlement of the Hmong? What are the reasons for secondary migration among this group? What are the implications for resettlement strategies?

What resettlement efforts and economic strategies have provided effective results for the Hmong?

How are problems being handled? What kinds of solutions are being tried, by different resettlement communities and by the Hmong themselves?
How many and what kinds of entrepreneurial economic development projects involving the Hmong are currently in operation, e.g., farming projects, Pa ndau cooperatives? How were they developed and how successful are they?
What kinds of Hmong employment strategies have been particularly successful?

How might current strategies be changed to result in more effective resettlement and long-term adjustment of the Hmong?

How might resettlement be conducted differently for the Hmong? What new projects and approaches are being considered by those involved in Hmong resettlement? How would the Hmong want resettlement to be done differently?
How can the Hmong be resettled in a way that better utilizes their strengths and unique characteristics?
What do the Hmong want for themselves? What do Hmong view as essential for effective resettlement? What are their goals for the future? For the next generation of Hmong?

Research conducted in the project included analysis of existing data about the Hmong, compilation of information gathered through numerous informal face-to-face and telephone conversations with Hmong informants across the country (in nearly every Hmong settlement which could be identified) and on-site observations, group meetings and personal interviews with Hmong Individuals and families (as well as resettlement officials, service providers and members of the host communities). On-site case studies of Hmong resettlement were conducted in seven selected cities:

Orange County, California
Fresno, California
Portland, Oregon
Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota
Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas
Fort Smith, Arkansas
Providence, Rhode Island

Title: The Hmong resettlement study, Site Report, Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas. Author: Bruce T. Downing. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 66 pages Format: PDF.

Abstract: This document reports on the resettlement of Hmong refugees in Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas: what their employment experiences have been, which resettlement efforts have been successful, and how current resettlement efforts could be altered to improve the Hmong's long-term adjustment. The report is part of a larger, national project on Hmong resettlement. Much of the data was gathered through personal interviews with Hmong and individuals working with them in Dallas-Fort Worth. Section I gives general information about the area, the population, economic base, employment possibilities, welfare, housing, refugee services, and community relations. Section II gives brief information on the size and history of the Hmong population in Dallas-Fort Worth, which was estimated at approximately 360 in 1983. Section III describes employment (between 90 and 98% employed), economic self-sufficiency, welfare dependence, job training, education, and adult English-as-a-second-language programs. Section IV summarizes the findings specific to the Dallas-Fort Worth site, which include: (1) a very high level of employment and two-income families, meaning relative economic prosperity; (2) low rate of dependence on public assistance and refugee programs; (3) high rate of home ownership; and (4) a high percentage of young people completing high school and continuing on to higher education. The most serious problem found was the failure of some adults to learn English. The future of the Hmong in Dallas-Fort Worth looks generally positive and, aside from the language problem, is an example of a successful resettlement experience.

Title: The Hmong resettlement study, Site Report, Fort Smith, Arkansas. Author: Bruce T. Downing. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 74 pages Format: PDF.

Abstract: This document reports on the resettlement of Hmong refugees in Fort Smith, Arkansas: what their employment experiences have been, which resettlement efforts have been successful, and how current resettlement efforts could be altered to improve the Hmong's long-term adjustment. The report is part of a larger, national project on Hmong resettlement. Much of the data was gathered through personal interviews with Hmong and individuals working with them in Fort Smith. Section I gives general information about the area, the population, the economic base (manufacturing), employment possibilities, welfare, housing, refugee services, and the relatively positive community response to the refugees. Section II gives brief information on the size and history of the Hmong population in Fort Smith, which was estimated at approximately 296 in 1983. Section III describes employment which, while high, is low paying and entirely based on one industry (manufacturing), welfare assistance (none of the Fort Smith Hmong receive welfare); economic development (land purchases for farming); job training; education (including particular problems for Hmong girls); and adult English-as-a-second-language programs. Section IV summarizes the findings specific to the Fort Smith area, which include: (1) all Hmong in Fort Smith are there as a result of planned secondary migration; (2) there is high employment but the family incomes are low and medical expenses are a major problem; (3) there is underemployment; (4) there are insufficient opportunities for developing English proficiency and work experience; (5) the Hmong are developing plans and strategies for economic growth but are faced with very little means of acquiring capital. (CG)

Title: The Hmong resettlement study, Site Report, Orange County, California. Author: Mary Cohn. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 81 pages Format: PDF.

Abstract: This document describes the resettlement of Hmong refugees in Orange County, California: what their employment experience has been, which resettlement efforts have been successful, and how current efforts could be altered to improve the Hmong's long term adjustment. The report is part of a larger, national project on Hmong resettlement. Much of the data was gathered through personal interviews with Hmong living in Orange County and resettlement workers involved with this group. The first section of the report gives general information about Orange County and describes what welfare benefits, housing, and refugee services are available, as well as how receptive the community is to refugees. Section II gives brief information on the local Hmong population who, according to one source, numbered approximately 3,000 in 1983. Section III deals with employment and education issues: what jobs are available; how limited English skills affect employment and how these obstacles are being combatted; the problem of welfare as a disincentive both for work and education; the availability of job training; how Hmong students are faring in school; and adult language instruction. The final section describes the long range problems and expectations for the Hmong in Orange County, including the increasing mental health problems, particularly of the middle aged and older members of the population; and how the young Hmong view their possibilities in the United States.

Title: The Hmong resettlement study, Site Report, Portland, Oregon. Author: Michael Sweeney. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 71 pages Format: PDF.

Abstract: This document reports on the resettlement of Hmong Refugees in Portland, Oregon: what their employment experiences have been, which resettlement efforts have been successful, and how current resettlement efforts could be altered to improve the Hmong's long-term adjustment. The report is part of a larger, national project on Hmong resettlement. Section I gives general information about Portland, its population, economy, employment market, welfare, housing, refugee services, and the mixed community reaction to Hmong refugees. Section II gives brief information on the size and history of the Hmong population in Portland, which was approximately 1,068 in 1983. Section III discusses employment and education issues. Section IV discusses the unique significance of Portland as a site in that it experienced an emigration of Hmong which reduced the refugee population by three-fourths. The section also summarizes the site findings, which include: (1) secondary migration from Oregon to California has significantly affected the Portland Hmong community; (2) the Hmong desire economic self-sufficiency and feel that public assistance should be tied to employment; (3) despite a poor economy, many families have at least one employed member; (4) the Hmong feel they have not benefited from employment services and mostly have found jobs through community networks; (5) there are few vocational or job training opportunities and they feel that ESL should be closely tied to job training; and (6) high school students have difficulty graduating and are not receiving adequate vocational training.

Title: The Hmong resettlement study, Site Report, Minneapolis-St. Paul. Author: Bruce Downing. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 102 pages Format: PDF.

Abstract: This document reports on the resettlement of Hmong refugees in Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota: what their employment experiences have been, which resettlement efforts have been successful, and how current resettlement efforts could be altered to improve the Hmong's long-term adjustment. The report is part of a larger, national project on Hmong resettlement. Much of the data was gathered through personal interviews with Hmong and individuals working with them in Minneapolis-St. Paul. Section I gives general information about the Twin Cities, their general population, other minority groups, economic base, employment climate, welfare, housing, refugee services, and community reaction to the Hmong. Section II gives brief information on the size and history of the Hmong population in the Twin Cities, which was estimated at approximately 8,252 in 1982. Section III discusses employment, welfare dependence, job training and education for adults, public school education, and English-as-a-second-language for adults. Section IV discusses the unique features of the Twin Cities as a Hmong resettlement area in that Hmong are the primary refugee group in the area and thus services have been specially geared toward their needs. Section V discusses the future of the Hmong in Minneapolis-St. Paul, their goals, likelihood of secondary migration, and possibility of repartriation. In general, the mood of the Hmong community in the Twin Cities is one of frustration and depression.

Title: The Hmong resettlement study, Site Report, Fresno. Author: Stephen Reder. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 143 pages Format: PDF.

Abstract: This document reports on the resettlement of Hmong refugees in Fresno County, California: what their employment experience has been, which resettlement efforts have been successful, and how current resettlement efforts could be altered to improve the Hmong's long-tern adjustment. Much of the data was gathered through personal interviews with Hmong and individuals working with Hmong in Fresno County. The first section gives general information about Fresno County and describes the general population, other refugee groups, the economic base (farming), economic problems, housing, problems of refugee services, and the very negative community reaction to Hmong refugees. Section II gives information on the size and history of the Hmong population who, according to one source, numbered approximately 10,000 in May, 1983. Section III considers a variety of resettlement issues, including lack of English proficiency, lack of job skills, discrimination, welfare dependence, lack of job search skills, and the lack of entrepreneurial experience and technical assistance for farmers and small businessmen. Also discussed are education issues, in particular the feelings of extreme disorientation the Hmong feel in the schools and their sense that the education is inappropriate for their needs. The final section considers secondary migration, welfare disincentives, socialization problems, and psychological issues. The paper concludes with extensive appendices, which include Fresno County welfare caseloads, refugee services available, organization of services, and transcripts of letters translated into English from Hmong in Fresno County.

Title: The Hmong resettlement study, Site Report, Providence, Rhode Island. Author: John Finck. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 67 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: This document reports on the resettlement of Hmong refugees in Providence, Rhode Island: what their employment experiences have been, which resettlement efforts have been successful, and how current resettlement efforts could be altered to improve the Hmong's long-term adjustment. The report is part of a larger, national project on Hmong resettlement. Section I gives general information about the area, the population, the economic base and employment opportunities, welfare, housing, refugee services, and a mixed community reaction to the Hmong. Section II gives a brief summary of the size and history of the Hmong population in Providence, which was estimated at approximately 1,700-2,000 in 1983. Section III discusses the issues of employment, job training, education, and adult English-as-a-second-language programs. In section IV summaries of the site specific findings are given, along with reflections on the future of the Hmong in Providence. Some of these findings are as follows: (1) housing is inexpensive either for rental or purchase; (2) there are a large number of entry level jobs in the jewelry and metal industries which, while low paying, give the Hmong jobs and often provide health insurance benefits; (3) the Hmong community is recognized and funding is available for them throughout the state; (4) employers are increasingly receptive to refugees; (5) health centers with bilingual staff are available; (6) there is an undercurrent of racial tension, and segregated housing patterns limit the Hmong to high crime neighborhoods. In general, the outlook for the Hmong in Providence is seen as relatively positive with the expectation that they will reduce their welfare dependency rate below the average for United States' citizens

Classic Hmong Refugee Resettlement Research from the University of Minnesota

Title: The Hmong in the West. Authors: Bruce T. Downing and Douglas P. Olney, Editors. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1982. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 420 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: Papers of the 1981 Hmong Research Conference are published here. The papers cover a wide range of subjects and include a brief history of the Hmong people and why they left Laos, traditional Hmong culture and cultural change, Hmong linguistics, problems of English language training, Hmong communities in the United States, and problems of resettlement. Papers presented at a 1984 conference on research onthe Hmong in the United States are collected in this book. The 24 papers are organized around four central themes (among culture and change, adaptation to a new society, language and literacy, and health care issues). Titles and authors are: (1) "Stages of Hmong Cultural Adaptation" (William A. Smalley); (2) "The Hmong of Laos:Economic Factors in the Refugee Exodus and Return" (Robert Cooper);(3) "Processes of Identity Maintenance in Hmong Society" (Timothy Dunnigan); (4) "Culture and Adaptation: Hmong Refugees in Australia"(Gary Yia Lee); (5) "The Miao in Cnntemporary China" (Louisa Schein);(6) "Geomancy as an Aspect of Upland-Lowland Relationships" (NicholasTapp); (7) "Training Hmong Women: For Marginal Workor Entry into the Mainstream" (Sarah R. Mason); (8) "Changes in Hmong Refugee Marital Attitudes in America" (William H. Meredith and George P. Rowe); (9)"Resolving Sexual Assault: Hmong and the American Legal System" (BethL. Goldstein); (10) "The Hmong in Isla Vista: Obstacles and Enhancements to Adjustment" (Catherine Stoumpos Gross); (11)"Factors Contributing to a Split within a Clientelistic Needlework Cooperative Engaged in Refugee Resettlement" (Nancy D. Donnelly); (12) "The Hmong Resettlement Study: A Symposium" (Includes six shortpages by severalauthors); (13) Cooperative Engaged in "Two-Word Expressives in White Hmong" (Martha Ratliff); (14) "Verb Serialization in Hmong" (LaurelOwensby); (15) "The Morpheme 'Rom': A First Analysis and Look at Embedding in Huang" (Annie Jaisser); (16) "Zero Anaphora and Topic Prominence in Mang" (Judith Wheaton Fuller); (17) "Investigating Literacy: Approaches, Tools, and Their Consequences for Inquiry"(Gail Weinstein); (18) "Factors in Individual Acquisition of English:A Longitudinal Study of Hmong Adults" (Karen Reed Green and Stephen Reder); (19) "Shamanism in the Context of Hmong Resettlement" (JaquesLemoine); (20) "Guidelines for Mental Health Professionals to Help Hmong Clients Seek Traditional Healing Treatment" (Bruce Thowpaou Bliatout); (21) Hmong Perception of Illness and TraditionalWays of Healing" (Xoua Thao); (22) 'Sleep Disturbances and Sudden Death of Hmong Refugees: A Report on Field Work Conducted in the Ban Vinai Refugee Camp" (Ronald G. Munger); (23) "A Cross-Cultural Assessment of Maternal-Child Interaction: Links to Health and Development"(Charles N. Oberg, Sharon Muret-Wagstaff, Shirley G. Moore and Brenda Cumming); (24) "Undue Lead Absorption in Hmong Children" (Karl Chun and Amos S. Deinard); (25) "Attitudes of Hmong toward a Medical Research Project" (Marshall Hurlich, Neal R. Holtan, and Ronald G.Munger). (KH)

Title: The Hmong in Transition. Authors: Glenn Hendricks and others, editors. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 459 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: Papers presented at a 1984 conference on research on the Hmong in the United States are collected in this book. The 24 papers are organized around four central themes (Hmong culture and change, adaptation to a new society, language and literacy, and health care issues). Titles and authors are: (1) "Stages of Hmong Cultural Adaptation" (William A. Smalley); (2) "The Hmong of Laos: Economic Factors in the Refugee Exodus and Return" (Robert Cooper); (3) "Processes of Identity Maintenance in Hmong Society" (Timothy Dunnigan); (4) "Culture and Adaptation: Hmong Refugees in Australia" (Gary Yia Lee); (5) "The Miao in Contemporary China" (Louisa Schein); (6) "Geomancy as an Aspect of Upland-Lowland Relationships" (Nicholas Tapp); (7) "Training Hmong Women: For Marginal Work or Entry into the Mainstream" (Sarah R. Mason); (8) "Changes in Hmong Refugee Marital Attitudes in America" (William H. Meredith and George P. Rowe); (9) "Resolving Sexual Assault: Hmong and the American Legal System" (Beth L. Goldstein); (10) "The Hmong in Isla Vista: Obstacles and Enhancements to Adjustment" (Catherine Stoumpos Gross); (11) "Factors Contributing to a Split within a Clientelistic Needlework Cooperative Engaged in Refugee Resettlement" (Nancy D. Donnelly); (12) "The Hmong Resettlement Study: A Symposium" (Includes six short pages by several authors); (13) Cooperative Engaged in "Two-Word Expressives in White Hmong" (Martha Ratliff); (14) "Verb Serialization in Hmong" (Laurel Owensby); (15) "The Morpheme 'Kom': A First Analysis and Look at Embedding in Hmong" (Annie Jaisser); (16)"Zero Anaphora and Topic Prominence in Hmong" (Judith Wheaton Fuller); (17) "Investigating Literacy: Approaches, Tools, and Their Consequences for Inquiry" (Gail Weinstein); (18) "Factors in Individual Acquisition of English: A Longitudinal Study of Hmong Adults" (Karen Reed Green and Stephen Reder); (19) "Shamanism in the Context of Hmong Resettlement" (Jaques Lemoine); (20) "Guidelines for Mental Health Professionals to Help Hmong Clients Seek Traditional Healing Treatment" (Bruce Thowpaou Bliatout); (21) "Hmong Perception of Illness and Traditional Ways of Healing" (Xoua Thao); (22) "Sleep Disturbances and Sudden Death of Hmong Refugees: A Report on Field Work Conducted in the Ban Vinai Refugee Camp" (Ronald G. Munger); (23) "A Cross-Cultural Assessment of Maternal-Child Interaction: Links to Health and Development" (Charles N. Oberg, Sharon Muret-Wagstaff, Shirley G. Moore and Brenda Cumming); (24) "Undue Lead Absorption in Hmong Children" (Karl Chun and Amos S. Deinard); (25) "Attitudes of Hmong toward a Medical Research Project" (Marshall Hurlich, Neal R. Holtan, and Ronald G. Munger). (KH)

Title: The Hmong resettlement study, Volume 1, Final Report. Author: Bruce T. Downing, Douglas P. Olney, Sarah R. Mason and Glenn Hendricks, et al. Source: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project Center for Urban and Regional Affairs University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1984. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 318 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: The Hmong Resettlement Study is a national project funded by the U.S. Office of Refugee Resettlement. The study is the joint undertaking of Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (Portland, Oregon), the University of Minnesota and Lao Family Community (Santa Ana, California). The major purposes of the Study are to examine closely the resettlement of Hmong refugees in the United States, focusing on the following issues: What has been the resettlement experience of the Hmong?

How are the Hmong faring in terms of employment, dependence, and adjustment?
Are there areas of employment in which the Hmong have been particularly successful?
What do resettlement workers and the Hmong regard as the major impediments to effective Hmong resettlement and self-sufficiency?
What role does secondary migration play in the resettlement of the Hmong? What are the reasons for secondary migration among this group? What are the implications for resettlement strategies?

What resettlement efforts and economic strategies have provided effective results for the Hmong?

How are problems being handled? What kinds of solutions are being tried, by different resettlement communities and by the Hmong themselves?
How many and what kinds of entrepreneurial economic development projects involving the Hmong are currently in operation, e.g., farming projects, Pa ndau cooperatives? How were they developed and how successful are they?
What kinds of Hmong employment strategies have been particularly successful?

How might current strategies be changed to result in more effective resettlement and long-term adjustment of the Hmong?

How might resettlement be conducted differently for the Hmong? What new projects and approaches are being considered by those involved in Hmong resettlement? How would the Hmong want resettlement to be done differently?
How can the Hmong be resettled in a way that better utilizes their strengths and unique characteristics?
What do the Hmong want for themselves? What do Hmong view as essential for effective resettlement? What are their goals for the future? For the next generation of Hmong?

Orange County, California
Fresno, California
Portland, Oregon
Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota
Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas
Fort Smith, Arkansas
Providence, Rhode Island

Classic Hmong Studies Publications from the Refugee Educator's Network Website

Title: Meo of Xieng Khouang Province (Laos Paper No. 13). Author: George Barney. Source: Dalley Book Service. Location: Christianburg, VA:. Year: 1990. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This older report describes the Hmong lifestyle and situation in Xieng Khouang Province of Laos. Topics covered include social organization, political organization, economic life, material culture, folklore and beliefs, the life cycle and recent changes in Hmong culture. The term "Meo" was still used by outsiders for Hmong in the era when this study was compiled.

Title: Dab Neeg Phau Ib (Hmong Folktales). Author: Yves Bertrais. Source: Association Communaute Hmong. Location: French Guyana:. Year: 1985. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 102 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: A collection of Hmong folktales in the RPA Hmong script. Compiled by the late Fr. Yves Bertrais.

Title: Hmong Sudden Unexpected Nocturnal Death Syndrome. Author: Bruce Bliatout. Source: Sparkle Publishing. Location: Portland, OR:. Year: 1982. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 132 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The Hmong are an ethnic minority group found in China, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand; and since 1975, Argen- tina, Australia, Canada, France and the United States. The Hmong of I,aos were heavily involved in the cold wars of Indochina during the 1960s and 1970s. When the Lao govern ment changed hands in 1975, this group of people underwent diaspora. Sincc 1973, there have been documentcd cases of mysterious sudden nocturnal deaths in the Hmong population. Al- though these deaths also strike other ethnic groups such as the Cambodian, Filipino, Japanese, Laotian, Mien and Vietnamese, by far the Hmong have experienced the highest death rates. Therefore, these deaths have become known as the Hmong Sudden Unexpected Nocturnal Death Syndrome. The deaths are associated with sleep and most victims had been relatively young, previously healthy men. Despite several ongoing investigations, the cause of these deaths has not yet been found. This study was done in an attempt to discover if these sudden deaths could have some cultural origins. The Hmong concepts of health and illness are very much intertwined with their beliefs in ancestor worship. The first focus of this study investigated whether beliefs in the power of spirits and other religious concepts, along with being unable to keep traditional religious practices and rituals in Western communities could possibly be a contributing factor to the Hmong Sudden Unexpected Nocturnal Death Syndrome. The second area of examination was to see whether the usage of traditional Hmong healing arts influenced the occurrence of these sudden deaths. Thirdly, the study considered whether membership in certain IImong snbgronps, clans or lineages was an added risk factor for sudden noctur- nal death, indicating a possible genetic origin for the syndrome. Fourthly, the study questioned whether past geo- graphic locations were common to the sudden nocturnal death victims' backgrounds. Fifth, other aspects of Hmong culture were considered for possible correlation to these deaths. Lastly, the study reviewed certain other investigators' theories that the sudden nocturnal deaths were linked to exposure to cherrlical warfare; depression causcd by the stress of assimilating into a Western culture; terror induced by nightmares; as well as other miscellaneous theories on possible causes of these deaths. Although no conclusive results were found, the evidence suggested that the cause of sudden nocturnal death may be genetic in origin. There were indications that certain members of the Hmong population are predisposed to sudden death. However, what causes some individuals to die at certain times has not yet been determined. There was some evidence that the deaths were linked to the presence of a higher level of stress. This stress was sometimes caused by beliefs in the powers of spirits, the inability to perform traditional religiorls cerenionies and rituals in Western countries, as well as a variety of othcr causes. It also seemed possible that cxposrlre to chemical warfare was a corrimon background for many of the sudden nocturnal death victims; if not exposure to an actual attack, then exposure to chemical residuals remaining in various areas of northern Laos. Whether this could cause sudden nocturnal deaths at a later date is still under debate.

Title: A Life Apart Viewed from the Hills. Author: Jon Boyes and S. Piriban. Source: Jaruek Publishing. Location: Chiang Mai, Thailand. Year: 1989. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 117 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: A work based on interviews with hilltribe people from six tribes in northern Thailand - the Yao, Akha, Lahu, Hmong, Lisu and the Karen. The interviews are arranged in six sections according to tribe and deal with a wide range of subjects from traditional culture to love and sex. An introduction followed by fairly detailed "notes" on hitribe lifestyles and history precedes the interviews. Illustrations of 23 interviewees accompany the work.

Title: Music of the Hmong, Singing Voices and Talking Reeds. Author: Amy Catlin. Source: Center for Hmong Lore, Museum of Natural History. Location: N.A. Year: 1980. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: This short work provides a brief overview of Hmong culture and Hmong traditional music forms including kwv txhiaj (sung poetry), the qeej and several other music instruments. Information is also provided about the role of orally recited songs, the drum and the qeej in the Hmong funeral ceremony.

Title: Hmong Recipe Cook Book. Author: Kathy Finkle. Source: Southeast Asia Community Resource Center. Location: Sacramento. Year: 1980. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 38 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This book involves a collection of Hmong recipes. It is divided into the following sections: unusual ingredients, basics, salads, greens, main dishes, vegetables, desserts/bread/cake and miscellaneous.

Title: L'Initiation du Mort Chez les Hmong. Author: Jacques Lemoine. Source: Pandora. Location: Bangkok. Year: 1980. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 136 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This French language anthropological work focuses on the traditional Hmong religion, related rituals and the shaman ceremony.

Title: Hmong Proverbs. Author: Prasit Leepreecha. Source: N.A. Location: N.A.. Year: 1994. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 67 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This work consists of a collection of Hmong proverbs in the Hmong RPA script and Thai language.

Title: History of the Hmong. Author: Jean Mottin. Source: Oden. Location: Bangkok. Year: 1980. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 80 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This short work focuses on Hmong history. The author includes sections on the Miao-Yao group, Hmong groups and subgroups, geographic dissemination of Hmong in Asia, Hmong demographics in Asia and Hmong history in China, Vietnam, Laos and Thailand.

Title: Elements de Grammaire Hmong. Author: Jean Mottin. Source: Don Bosco Press. Location: N.A. Year: 1978. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 217 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This French language work provides detailed information related to Hmong grammar.

Title: White Hmong Dialogues. Author: David Strecker. Source: Center for Urban and Regional Affairs, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1986. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (From the introduction), these dialogues were originally developed for an intensive beginning Hmong class taught by the authors. They are not a complete course in Hmong. In our class we also used pronunciation drills, conversation drills, exercises and readings. The dialogues, however, were an important part of the course. The students first mastered the dialogues on their own, imitating tape recordings made by Lopao Vang, and then paired off in class to practice the dialogues under the supervision of the teachers, who corrected their pronunciation. Eventually the students found that they had learned certain dialogues by heart and when they were conversing in Hmong they found themselves spontaneously using phrases from the dialogues at appropriate points in the conversation. We have tried, therefore, to provide appropriate natural utterances for a variety of social situations. We hope that these dialogues will be useful both in the classroom and to people studying Hmong on their own.

Title: Plans and Policies in Laos. Author: USAF Historical Liaison Office. Source: USAF Historical Liaison Office. Location: N.A. Year: 1964. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 109 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (From the Forward): This study emphasizes Headquarters USAF's plans and policies with respect to South Vietnam and Laos in 1964. In tha fjrst four chapters the author describes the progressive military and political decline of the Saigon regime, after two government coups, and the efforts by U.S. authorities b cope wlth this problem. He notes especially the view of the Air Force Chief of Staff, Gen, Curtis E. LeMay, frequently statad, that only air strikes on North Vietnam could end the insurgencies in South Vietnam and in Laos and bring stability to the Vietnamese government. This contrasted with administration efforts to devise an effective pacification program and, pending emergence of a stable government, its decision to adopt a "low risk policy to avoid military escalation. In the remaining chapters of the study, the author discusses briefly the major USAF augmentations, the expansion of the Vietnamese Air Force, the problem of service representation in Headquarters, Assistance Command, Vietnam, and the rules of engagement as they affected particularly air combat training. The study concludes with a brief review of the beginning of USAF special air warfare training for the Royal Laotian Air Force and the inauguration of limited USAF and Navy air operations over Laos to contain Communist expansion in that country.

Title: Hmong Alphabet Pre-Primer for Learning Words (Pahawh). Author: Chia Koua Vang and Gnia Yee Vang. Source: Motthem Family Location: Saint Paul. Year: 1987. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This work consists of a Hmong alphabet primer in the Pahawh script.

Title: Primary Word Book: English-Hmong. Author: Pha Thao. Source: University of Iowa College of Education. Location: Iowa City. Year: 1982. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 182 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (From the Introduction): We have designed the Primary Word Book to help (Hmong) pupils of limited English proficiency (LEP) to make the transition from their home language to English. The book communicates basic English vocabulary simply and directly. The words in the book include those most often encountered and used by elementary school pupils. Most of the words appear on basic reading and sight vocabulary lists. Additional words either come from LEP pupil life experiences or help to complete conceptual sequences. Words have been categorized to assist LEP pupils. The categories should help pupils to relate words to the objects for which they stand. Word opposites are pre- sented to help the pupil understand the relationship between words. Probably the best way to facilitate vocabulary acquisition and language transition is by stimulating pupilsf natural inquisitiveness. The teacher can help by encouraging pupils to identify words in the Primary Word Book -- either by using the pictures or by using the illustrated index. The teacher may want to present the words in the Primary Word Book in creative ways -- such as rhyming, demonstration, or pantomime -- to stimulate interest. The teacher may ask the child to draw the object and print the word. As the child masters the vocabulary, the teacher can encourage the child to combine words from different categories in the book.

Title: History of Laos. Author: Maha Sila Viravong. Source: Paragon. Location: New York. Year: 1964. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 158 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: This older work presents a history of the country of Laos. The publication is divided into the following sections: Muong Xieng Thong or Souvannaphoum Pathet. (The Khmer Race), The Birth of the Lao Race, the Ancient Kingdom of the Lao, the Lao Kingdom of Nong-Sae, or Nan-Tchou, the Lan-Xang Kingdom, the division of the Lao Kingdom into three Kingdoms, the Kingdom of Laos after the loss of its independence, the Lan-Xang Kingdoms of Vientianne.

Title: Showing the Way: A Hmong Initiation of the Dead. Author: Kenneth White. Source: Pandora. Location: Bangkok. Year: 1983. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 40 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: (From the Introduction by the author): The Hmong or Meo, as they are called by the Vietnamese, the Laos and the Thais (the Hmong them- selves do not like this name, which was originally derogatory, derived as it is from the Chinese "miao" meaning "sprouts" or "natives") belong to the archaic populations of Eastern Asia. At present in the process of final integration into the modern Chinese world in China and North Vietnam, they still live in dispersed and isolated groups in the Indochinese peninsula. The following initiatic poem was recorded and tran- scribed by the French ethnologist Jacques Lemoine in a group of Green Hmong (Hmong Njua) in Upper Laos. It is considered by the Hmong to have such power that certain precautions must be taken by the man who sings it (see the concluding lines). When 1 met Jacques Lemoine in Chieng Mai (North Thai- land) in December 1975, we got to talking about tribal poetries and he asked me if I'd care to translate into English his French version of the Qhua Ke first pub- lished in the French review of anthropology l'Hornme (vol XII, cahier 1, 1972). Having read the text, I had no hesitation in accepting. The task has been a plea- sant one, and I now offer this English language version as a contribution to the field of ethnopoetic studies. A word as to the transcription of Hmong terms. The accepted transcription in Thailand and Laos is the Barney - Smalley one, but phonologically it is a bit unwieldy and is unlikely, I think, to help the layman to get his tongue even approximately round the words. One character in the poem, for example, would be Ntxwj Sib Quas Nyoog -- and who could manage that first element ? Lernoine himself, in his version worked out a French graphic system to make reading easier. I've done the same thing here in English. I have added, also, within brackets, some minimal scenic indications and presentations (during these moments, if the singer says anything, he uses his normal speaking voice) but for a full account of the poem's setting, and a discussion of its contents, see Jacques Lemoine's articles in I'Homme (the afore- mentioned publication of the Qhua Ke in Cahier 1, 1972, followed up in Cahiers 2 and 3 of the same year).

Title: Hmong Language Lessons. Author: Doris Whitelock. Source: Source: Center for Urban and Regional Affairs, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 1981. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 132 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (From the Introduction): When Doris Whitelock wrote her White Meo Language Lessons in Thailand -- in the 1960s. she surely had no idea that so many Americans would be living and working side-by-side with speakers of Hmong in the United States today. But the Hmong refugees in the United States, now numbering over 60,000, have, since 1975, entered and enriched the lives of numbers of Americans, many of whom have eagerly sought to learn about the people, their history, and their traditional way of life. For some, to communicate with persons who do not speak English natively means learning at least something of their language, and it is for such dedi- cated and adventurous people that we have undertaken to reproduce these lessons. The manuscript has been cmpletely retyped, the name Hmong being substituted for the formerly used e, with some other minor corrections and modifications supplied by the author. The content of the lessons has scarcely been changed, and so materials originally intended for use by missionaries teaching themselves Hmong while living in a mountain-top village still contain the vocabulary of pig-feeding, cooking on an open fire, and Bible stories, The basics of White Hmong pronunciation, grammar, and usage are presented also, however, and the student may feel free to substitute vocabulary used in the context of Ihong refugee life in the United States, learned through the aid of a Hmong-speaking assistant, who will be essential anyway to provide oral practice with the lesson material. Originally some recorded "tape exercises" were available to accompany the lessons. These have been lost, and while the texts of some of these exercises are included in the lessons, others (beginning with at ape Exercise 19") are not. It is therefore not possible with this reprinting to offer tapes to accompany the lessons, although it is our intention to prepare new tapes in the future if the missing texts can be found. These lessons represent the White Hmong (Hmong Daw) dialect, rather than Blueleeen Hmong (Hang teng), only because that was the dialect of the village in which Doris Whitelock lived. A student who wishes to learn to speak the other major dialect could surely follow these lessons, substituting the sounds and words used by the language helper where these differ.

Title: Hilltribes of Northern Thailand. Author: Gordon Young. Source: AMS Press. Location: New York. Year: 1962. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 132 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This work consists of the author's socio-ethnological accounts of his research with numerous ethnic groups in Thailand including the Hmong.

Hmong Studies Journal Articles

Access all Hmong Studies Journal articles by Topic at this link.

Title: Veterans from Laos: War, Remembrance, Ritual, Rank, Racism, and the Making of Hmong and Lao America Authors: Ian Baird and Paul Hillmer. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 37 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Hmong and Lao veterans of the Secret War in Laos in the United States have become less active in anti-communist activities, especially since the Hmong former general, Vang Pao, was charged in 2007 with attempting to overthrow the Lao government. Although the charges were eventually dropped, interest in veterans’ groups and “US National Defense” groups has increased in recent years, as attention has shifted from trying to find a way to return to Laos victoriously, to seeking recognition from the US government for their contributions during the Secret War. Hmong and Lao veterans have used these groups to gain recognition within their own communities, and with American society more broadly; to gain military rank; to connect their service to the US government in Laos with their current lives in America; and crucially, to indirectly gain legitimation or to respond to racism that they have experienced in the United States. Some veterans are simply hoping for recognition; others would like to receive burial or other financial benefits.

Title: From Networks to Categories: Hmong Political Positionality, Mobility, and Remnant Subjectivities in Thailand. Author: David M. Chambers. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 46 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article discusses subjectivities of Hmong people (especially immigrants) as they are articulated to power networks in Thailand's space. Whereas some looks at Hmong spatiality have viewed Hmong people as a politically uncomplicated group in relation to the Thai state (Tomforde 2008). I fragment this picture exposing the mosaic of Hmong political identities in Thailand with some in positions of precarity and others in stability. In the chapter, I show how these positionalities are strongly influenced by a historical sequence of regional geopolitical and economic contexts which produce subjectivities as their corresponding power relations, immigration regimes, and citizenship categorizations act on the bodies of Hmong subjects. The road toward eventual precarity is marked by several signposts signaling conditions for the formation of power relations and their corresponding subjectivities which Hmong communities have made intelligible through semi-ethnic categorizations. I highlight differences in these autonymic categories within the Thai Hmong, Lao Hmong, and Vietnamese Hmong. Then I examine each group's mobilities as indicators of their relative precarity.

Title: The Need for Critical Race Consciousness in Critical Hmong Studies. Author: Christin DePouw. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 30 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This conceptual paper draws upon critical race theory (CRT) in education and whiteness as property (Harris, 1993) to reflect on the need for critical Hmong studies to include the development of critical race consciousness as an important goal of the field. The paper focuses on the racism within community and campus contexts in Wisconsin and how critical Hmong studies could empower students to successfully navigate race and power within their personal and professional lives. Wisconsin’s racial context includes anti-Hmong hostility, deficit and exotic framings of Hmong culture (DePouw, 2012), and racial triangulation (Kim, 1999) of Hmong Americans as “model minorities” in relation to other minoritized groups such as African Americans, Latinx Americans, or Somali Americans (Ngo & Lee, 2007; Lee, et al., 2017). The common thread is deploying white supremacy through an essentialized and racialized version of Hmong “culture” (DePouw, 2012), not only in mainstream society but also in educational spaces such as the University of Wisconsin System (UW System). To many educational institutions such as the UW System, a focus on culture or identity may appear less threatening because “culture” allows white supremacy and institutional racism to remain unnamed and therefore uncontested. One of the challenges for critical Hmong studies is to try to maintain institutional support while also educating its students to develop critical consciousness around race and other forms of oppression, and to foster student agency to address issues relevant to Hmong American communities. Critical race studies in education and the analytical tool of whiteness as property (Harris, 1993) are necessary to support critical Hmong studies in advancing the goals of critical thinking and agency within institutional and social context.

Title: Loyal Soldier, Fearsome Terrorists: The Hmong as a Martial Race in Southeast Asia and the United States. Author: Alex Hopp. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 30 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Martial race theory, an ideological construction used to organize colonial hegemony, acted as a lens through which the French and the United States understood the Hmong in Southeast Asia. In the early 20th century, Laotian Hmong resistance to French colonialism was interpreted as evidence of the martial qualities of the Hmong. Subsequently, a combined French-Hmong resistance against the Japanese occupation of Indochina cemented their “martial” status and both informed and retroactively “justified” the U.S. decision to recruit the Hmong during the Secret War. In the aftermath of the Secret War, the flight of Hmong refugees to the United States brought martial race theory to American soil, evidenced by legislation designed to honor Hmong veterans and by the designation of certain Hmong as terrorists following 9/11. Overall, this classification of the Hmong as a martial race illustrates the ways that colonial legacies remain impactful even today, both for the colonial subject and for the imperial power.

Title: Experiential Learning and Research for Undergraduates in Public Health: Transferring Focus Group Research to Peer Reviewed Journal Publication and Public Health Practice. Authors: Susi Keefe and Michelle Gin. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 15 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: University collaboration with public health agencies is a proven effective way to connect students and faculty to real world local public health problems (Neri et al., 2014; Greece et al., 2018). An undergraduate capstone Senior Seminar course worked with a Minnesota state agency and community initiative, the Mercury in Skin Lightening Products Workgroup to address the use of toxic skin lightening products in Minnesota. Students conducted focus group research with Hmong college students in St. Paul, MN on the topic of skin lightening products. Since the end of the course, six students wrote a research paper that was accepted for publication in a peer reviewed journal and applied their knowledge into public health practice (Keefe et al., 2018). This article explores the high impact of courses with community and agency collaborations with emphasis on the potential to publish findings from research with undergraduates.

Tit le: Hmong Survivors: Second Wave Hmong Parents’ Identity. Author: Mao S. Lee Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 29 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: About 15,000 Hmong refugees from Wat Tham Krabot (WTK), Thailand resettled in the U.S. in the 2000’s. Since their resettlement, these families have lived in America for fifteen years. Besides knowing that they are the most recent group of Hmong refugees, it is unknown how Hmong parents of this cohort perceive themselves. This ethnographic study aims at finding the answer to this question by interviewing nine Hmong parents from the second wave. Results reveal that these parents’ perceptions of their identity are based on their socio-historical experiences. Their lived experiences across multiple countries, namely Laos, Thailand, and the U.S. play a vital role in their identity development. Aside from their refugee narratives, group comparison also inevitably plays a role in how they identify themselves. Subsequently, these parents do not want a nationality suffix, such as American or Thai, attached to their identity. Rather, these parents see themselves as Hmong Survivors, an identity that both represents their lack of a nation-state and their refugee background.

Title: An Explanation of the Logic of Hmong RPA. Author: Chô Ly. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 15 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Hmong RPA is probably the most used Hmong alphabet worldwide. Although the creators of the alphabet describe it as a coherent alphabet, it is often misunderstood by the Hmong people and as a result, many have adapted it by changing some consonant clusters by another association of letters that would make more sense to them. This paper aims at explaining the logic behind the consonant clusters starting with N (nc, ndl, ntx, ntsh, nplh, etc., called prenasalized consonants) in simple terms so that Hmong people understand the coherence mentioned by Bertrais (1991). After having explained the “rule” behind the choice of these letter combinations, the author analyzes the sounds made by all of them in alphabetical order to show that these prenasalized consonants all follow the same rule. It is hoped that this paper will help Hmong people understand the Hmong alphabet better and learn it more easily.

Title: Hidden Melodies of the Hmong Language: The Rhythmers. Authors: Yuna Thao, Choua Yang, & Chô Ly. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. P aul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 17 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Rhythmers are used in the Hmong language. However, there is no literature on them. The word rhythmer itself is not in the English dictionary; it was first observed and termed by Dr. Cho Ly in his Ph.D. dissertation (Ly, 2004). The objective of this study is to further understand the meaning of rhythmers by analyzing approximately 100 sentences with rhythmers. The rhythmers studied consisted of those taken from Dr. Ly’s Ph.D. data and everyday dialogue. After observation, it was discovered that rhythmers add meaning to sentences and/or change the meaning of the sentences. In some cases, they only add rhythm to sentences and help the sentences flow better. They are not necessarily meaningless words. They are usually placed at the end or beginning of sentences or at the end of a clause. Nonetheless, they cannot be used randomly. Therefore, the rhythmers are a new part of speech.

Title: Gender Theory and Cultural Considerations in Understanding Hmong Homicide-Suicide. Author: Pa Thor. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Homicide-suicide is when a perpetrator kills an individual(s) and then subsequently dies by suicide. In the United States, homicide-suicide accounts for approximately 1,000-1,500 deaths per year, primarily in the context of spousal relationships. Intimate partner homicide-suicides occur as the result of an actual or impending relationship breakdown, bringing emotional strain to surviving individuals and their communities. This paper uses the theoretical framework of male sexual property to examine how traditional gender roles and marital practices are conducive to Hmong homicide-suicide. The increased frequency of Hmong homicide-suicide have challenged the Hmong’s acculturation in understanding and addressing gender-based violence. The paper discusses two case examples of Hmong intimate partner homicide-suicide (IPHS) to highlight the marital practices and gender role expectations among the Hmong culture. While Hmong have made considerable progress both collectively and individually, gender-based violence connects to and is addressed based on traditional collectivist values and beliefs. The discussion focuses on addressing homicide-suicide facilitators as they relate to the integration and advancement of Hmong in western society.

Title: Self-Construal: Perceptions of Work and School in Two Generations of Hmong Immigrants. Author: Pa Der Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper describes a research project in which 40 Hmong participants were interviewed comparing two generations of Hmong immigrants. Self-construal served as an operating framework in understanding respondent satisfaction with work and school; two very salient features in individual functioning and worldview. Self-construal is the manner in which the client views themselves in relation to others and is influenced by culture. The researcher compared perceptions of work and school among first and generation immigrants in terms of work in relation to self-construal. The study of self-construal is important for social workers and other service providers who work with immigrants and refugees as it informs cross cultural practice. Understanding culturally informed views on client satisfaction and perceptions will help social workers gain a stronger understanding of the client experience and work cross culturally with clients.

Title: Celebrating Hmong New Year Not for the New Year Celebration: A Case Study in Urban Community in Chiang Mai City, Thailand. Author: Urai Yangcheepsutjarit. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 25 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper is an attempt to give a critical examination of the contemporary Hmong New Year celebrations in Thailand particularly the New Year celebration hosted by Hmong entrepreneurs from January 15-17, 2016 at the Tribal Museum, Chiang Mai. The study is based on my interviews with Hmong entrepreneurs, written materials such as newspapers, data available on websites and my observations and participation in the New Year celebrations. The chapter aims at better understanding Hmong New Year celebrations held in Chiang Mai City since the 1990s. The focus is on the shift of the Hmong New Year celebration from rural areas to urban areas and how this cultural festival has been turned or used for different purposes by various Hmong networks over time. This New Year celebration in Chiang Mai City can be thought of an example of the present trend of holding New Year celebrations elsewhere. My argument is that even though the trend in New Year celebrations has been locally reshaped according to a national context, it is still a transnational practice shared by all Hmong in different nation states. In fact, it is through the New Year celebration that the diaspora Hmong maintain their sense of belonging to the same ‘national’ identity.

Title: The Gu: An Anthropological Viewpoint on the Stigmatization of the Miao-Yao People. Author: Lan Yongshi. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 25 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Gu in Chinese “蛊”, is a kind of witchcraft. There are still some unfounded rumors that the keepers of the Gu gather hundreds of worms and perform magic arts in order to murder for gain. However, as it coincided with the southern environment, local diseases and regional culture, from the Sui and Tang dynasties on, it came to be regarded as an evil custom peculiar to some areas of southern China. With the gradual development of the South, the scope of the legendary “Gu” moved south as mainstream culture expanded into the southern regions of China; as far as Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian and the Southwest, the south of the Yangtze River. Rather than being a simple matter of witchcraft, “Gu” embodies the self-centered, beggar-thy-neighbor way in which the ruling clique imagines and constructs the other. Consequently, the ruling group imagined and constructed the boundary between mainstream society and the marginalized society of “Gu”, in order to maximize national resources and power and the high integration of its own society, while excluding those societies who still practiced the “Gu”. Step by step, the ethnic group accused of having the “Gu” thus internalized and absorbed the stigma imposed onto them by mainstream society, reflecting the subtleties that exist, such as stigma, within marginalized cultures who must confront the dominant culture.

Title: Revamping Beliefs, Reforming Rituals, and Performing Hmongness? A Case Study of Temple of Hmongism. Author: Weidong Zhang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2020. Additional Source Information: Volume 21. Pagination: 28 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Temple of Hmongism is a membership-based non-profit, new religious organization first launched in 2012 from St Paul, Minnesota, to promote Hmongism, a simplified version of traditional religion “Dab Qhuas Hmoob,” in Hmong immigrant communities around the US. This is a group of Hmong men and women who, through research and deliberation, strive to consolidate and institutionalize the indigenous Hmong beliefs taken with them from Asia, while at the same time, reform various religious rituals and practices in all areas, including Shamanism, weddings, and funerals, in the hope of making them “much simpler, less costly, and more friendly” and “full of Hmong identity and pride” in their newly adopted land. How does Temple of Hmongism revamp a system of traditional religious beliefs? What does it mean to a transnational Hmong community? Does it signify a continuous traditionalist or culturalist move, a move to search for Hmong identity, and a cultural resistance to the encircle and encroachment of traditional Hmong society by contesting and combating a dominant mainstream power from outside? In what way does Temple of Hmongism redefine Hmongness, the meaning of being Hmong? And how is it performed in religious rituals and everyday lives? Through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with members of this religious organization, as well as participant observation at different religious practices, this study strives to understand this growing new religious movement in the transnational Hmong community, and see how religious faith, cultural heritage, and ethnic identity intersect and interact with each other.

Title: Commentary: Constructing Refugees in the Academic Discourse: The Hmong in America. Author: Marc Dorpema. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: Volume 20, Issue 1. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Produced in a historiographical spirit, this literature review traces trends in the depiction of Hmong Americans not in popular representations such as newspapers or public perception, but in the American academic discourse itself. By adopting a thematic approach, it evidences the curious chronological development of which aspects of Hmong studies were treated in which way from the 1980s until the present. To this extent, the paper argues that while the 1980s and 1990s saw a heavy emphasis on social scientific studies of Hmong family ties and clan structure which, while careful and mostly sensitive in their treatment, nevertheless on occasion construct the Hmong as either irreconcilably or undesirably different(sections I and II). It then proceeds to crystallise the significant treatment of education with respect to the Hmong, which, produced in particular in the late 1990s and early 2000s, presented powerful cases of forced assimilation through the lens of Hmong Americans themselves(section III).A brief fourth section focuses on the marginal role ascribed to economic problems encountered by the Hmong, treated as almost inevitable.Crucially, the fifth section proceeds to problematise more recent feminist critiques.The argument presented here is that their central drawback lies in the appropriation and overriding of Hmong voices for a particular project.This construction of Hmong voices, finally, is on the retreat in most recent studies which, centred on horticulture, music, rituals and medicine –to name but a few –attempt to elucidate the Hmong American experience through the lens of the protagonists themselves. This is an important step, and one which must be pursued further.

Title: Influence of Perceived Parental Involvement on Hmong Children’s Academic Performance. Authors: Zha Blong Xiong, Kyle Nickodem, Jordan St. Charles, Sun-Kyung Lee, Jacqueline Braughton, Chen Vue, and Nancy Lo. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: Volume 20, Issue 1. Pagination: 39 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine what predicted parental involvement based on children’s report and whether parental involvement serves as an advantage to children’s math and reading abilitiesand academic performance. This study included 380 students (179boys and 201girls) in 3rd, 4th, and 5th grades from five Hmong-focused charter schools in Minnesota. It was found that gender, number of siblings, and temperament were predictive of home-based parent involvement, while ethnicity, temperament, and language spoken with parents was predictive of school-based parent involvement. Subsequently, school-based parent involvement was predictive of children’s self-reported academic competence and academic performance. Overall, the model explains 8.3% and 21.7% of the variation in home-and school-based involvement, respectively, and explains 11.9% and 4.1% of the variation in reported academic competence and academic performance, respectively. The study ends with some implications and future research with Hmong students and parents.

Title: The Miao in China: A Review of Developments and Achievements over Seventy Years. Authors: Tian Shi, Xiao Hua Wu, De Bin Wang and Yan Lei. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: Volume 20, Issue 1. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Since 1949, the Miao nationality in China has encountered historic opportunities for development. This paper reviews four aspects of the historical achievements of the Miao nationality in China: education, youth organizations, cultural heritage, and new media and women’s empowerment. By analyzing official statistics and autoethnographic data, we demonstrate that the agency of the Miao has contributed to these historical achievements. We argue that the Miao have seized many chances to promote development. Moreover, this paper emphasizes that the Miao have diverse cultures and an imbalance in development in various areas. These diverse features demonstrate that a single criterion cannot be used to measure the complicated situation and we call for further transdisciplinary research.

Title: The impact of language brokering on Hmong college students’ parent-child relationship and academic persistence. Authors: Kikuko Omori and Kyoko Kishimoto. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: Volume 20, Issue 1. Pagination: 43 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Using children as language brokers is a common practice in many migrant families. However, the particular contexts for language brokering and cultural impacts vary depending on migrant groups. Much of the literature on the impact of children’s language brokering on migrant families has focused on Latinx families and some Asian (predominantly Chinese) immigrant families.This study is the first,to our knowledge, that focuses on the impact of language brokering among Hmong refugee families in the United States. Using multi-method studies, we administered an online survey and conducted focus group interviews to understand Hmong college students’ language brokering practices in one Midwestern university and the impact this practice had on the relationships with their parents. Our results showed the diverse situations in which the students provided translations for their parent(s). Students also felt that language brokering helped them become bicultural and bilingual and that it brought them closer to their parents and Hmong culture.Student perspectives on the impact of language brokering on family relations and academic persistence are further discussed

Title: A Hmong Story Cloth Featuring Mak Phout (Lima Site 137) In Northern Laos: Rare in Content and Artistic Detail. Authors: Linda A. Gerdner, Lee Gossett and Frederic C. Benson. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: Volume 20, Issue 1. Pagination: 44 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong, who allied with the Royal Lao Government (RLG) and the United States during the “Secret War” in Laos, were forced to flee their homeland when the RLG fell to Communist control. They escaped to refugee camps in Thailand. During confinement the women drew upon their exceptional needlework skills and lived experiences to create a new art formusing a culturally relevant medium to embroider colorful images on cloth to tell their stories. This article features a rare story cloth depicting military operations and life at Lima Site 137 during the “Secret War. ”Because little information is available about this specific site, the article begins with background information onthe overall purpose of Lima Sites with emphasis on those that are more well known. The article advances with a photo of Hmong refugees establishing a temporary shelter in the jungle after fleeing from the Communist Pathet Lao and North Vietnamese soldiers.A portion of these refugees eventually found safety at Lima Site 137, providing a segue to the featured story cloth. This ethnographic textile art is supplemented with rare photos and the first-hand experiences of Retired Captain Lee Gossett and Frederic Benson. Both provided humanitarian effort to the Royal Lao Government and the Hmong people affected by the war. Extended efforts were made to talk to Hmong individuals who had experienced life at LS-137, but those we learned of were no longer available to share their stories.Select photos of daily life at other Lima Sites add breadth and depth to our understanding of life during the war as experienced by both the refugees and the United States humanitarians who served them

Title: Neo-Rural Hmong in French Guiana. Author: Marie-Odile Géraud. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: Volume 20, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong have been living in French Guiana since 1977. They are mainly market gardeners and live in two main villages, which are mostly mono-ethnic. At the end of the 1990s, a new Hmong settlement, Corossony, was founded by Hmong from mainland France, neo-rural and neo-agriculturalists, driven by a more individualistic lifestyle and aspiring to work towards ideals of freedom, a return to a more authentically Hmong existence and social success. This study examines the characteristics of these neo-residents who stand apart from other Hmong in French Guiana, living in a way they perceive to be at variance with their previous lives in France. Their situation must be analyzed less as a new relationship to the rural world and to agriculture or a reappropriation of a past way of life than as a counter-model to their integration in mainland France.

Title: Rethinking the Lives, Experiences and Behaviors of Hmong Women in Regard to their Ability to Achieve Empowerment and Agency and Finding Happiness. Review of Claiming Place:On the Agency of Hmong Women. Author: Kao-Ly Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 2. Pagination: 7 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article consists of a book review of Claiming Place: On the Agency of Hmong Women, a scholarly work focused on both the historical and contemporary experiences of Hmong women as well as Hmong LGBTQ.

Title: Review of Musical Minorities: The Sounds of Hmong Ethnicity in Northern Vietnam. Author: Catherine Falk. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 2. Pagination: 8 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article consists of a book review of Musical Minorities: The Sounds of Hmong Ethnicity in Northern Vietnam.

Title: Review and Guide to Hmong Songs of Memory: Traditional Secular and Sacred Hmong Music. Essays, Images, and Film. Author: Amy Catlin-Jairazbhoy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 2. Pagination: 15 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article consists of a book-and-DVD review and viewer’s guide to Hmong Songs of Memory: Traditional Secular and Sacred Hmong Music,a paired ethnographic publication on music and shamanism of Hmong villagers in Northern Laos and Thailand. The video-monograph is based on original field research conducted between 2005 and 2016, informed by recent English language scholarship.

Title: Sex Education for Hmong American Youth: Challenges and Lessons Learned. Authors: Nancy Lo, Zha Blong Xiong, Laurie L. Meschke, Vern Xiong, Kia Kehrer and Mary Xiong, Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 2. Pagination: 38 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Teen pregnancy is a significant health and social concern. Hmong Americans have some of the highest adolescent pregnancy rates in the nation;yet, there are very few culturally competent programs developed to prevent teen pregnancy in this community. The purpose of this paper is to examine the efficacy and implementation challenges of two sex education programs specifically adapted for Hmong American youth. This study assessed two cohorts of Hmong American youths (n =53and n=50), ages 11 to 15 years (mean = 12.96, SD = 0.72) and four interviews with program facilitators. Results showed asignificant main effect for the perceived sexual health knowledge scalefor cohort one (F(1,52) =221.39, p < .001;n² = .81) and no gender effects for either cohort. Staff interviews showed four main challenges for program implementation,including lack of sex conversations in the home, lack of culturally relevant curriculum, time constraints and program setting, and issues within community partnerships. Implications for future sexuality education programs are discussed.

Title: Hmong College Student Perceptions and Experiences with Mercury Containing Skin Lightening Products in St. Paul Minnesota. Authors: Susi Keefe, Abdullahi Abdulle, Kim Holzer, Nadia Mohammed, Bettina Schneider, Alexa Vorderbruggen and Michael Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 2. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study examines the behaviors, experiences, and attitudes towards skin lightening products of Hmong college students in Saint Paul, Minnesota during Fall of 2017. The role of colorism/racism is well-known to result in the use of skin lightening products globally. The Minnesota Department of Health and Minnesota Pollution Control Agency recently identified the use of mercury based products in the Hmong community as a significant health concern. Current outreach surrounding the presence of mercury in these products is minimal and knowledge of the products containing mercury and/or the consequences of mercury are unknown to the community. Four focus groups were conducted at three local colleges with members of college Hmong Student Associations. Our findings reveal familial and community relationships, generational differences, and American and contemporary Korean (K-pop) culture influence Hmong American beauty ideals. This research contributes significant knowledge to our understandings of how and why skin lightening products are used in the Hmong American community and is vital for developing educational outreach within the Hmong community.

Title: The Influence of Hmong Americans’ Acculturation and Cultural Identity on Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Mental Health Care and Services in Comparison to Traditional Health Beliefs and Practices. Authors: Ethan Teng Xiong, Barry Dauphin and Carol Weisfeld. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 2. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong people have endured a long history of war-related trauma,and they have settled in different parts of the world. As a consequence, many Hmong people may have experienced various levels of psychological symptoms and have limited knowledge and resources for treatment and interventions. Issues of acculturation, cultural identity, traditional beliefs &practices,seeking traditional medical interventions, and religious beliefs may influence help-seeking behaviors from professional psychological services. Data, including demographic information, were gathered from two Hmong American churches located in southeast Michigan. The results showed that seeking professional services was correlated with both acculturation and traditional beliefs & practices. Acculturation and traditional beliefs &practices each contributed unique variance to help-seeking behaviors.This suggests that both low levels of acculturation and high levels of traditional beliefs & practices could result in people being less likely to seek mental health services. In this sample, Hmong Americans preferred God over traditional beliefs, such as Shamanism. The implications of these findings will be discussed.

Title: End of Life Care for the Hmong Population: A Cultural Competency Educational Program for Hospice Nurses. Authors: Margaret Bjelica and Julie Ann Nauser. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 2. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Introduction: The number of Hmong people living in the United States is increasing rapidly. Considering their unique perspective regarding life and death,it is essential that hospice nurses are educated to provide culturally competent care. Methodology: A pre-post testpilot project was used to measure the effect of a cultural competency class regarding Hmong people for hospice RNs. The IAPCC-Rtool with skill, awareness, encounters, knowledge, and desire subscales, measured nurses’ cultural competence at pre-, immediate,and three months-post interventions. Results: Baseline total scores indicated participants (n=9) were culturally aware (50-74/100). No significant changes at immediate or three months-post in the total score were noted. Only the awareness subscale significantly increased at post (p=.041) and three months (p=.039). An upward trend in total scores suggested higher cultural competence. Discussion: More research is needed regarding the impact of education on hospice nurses’ cultural competence of the Hmong population.

Title: The Role of Social and Emotional Skills and Supports for Hmong Student Achievement. Author: Kory Vue and Michael C. Rodriguez. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 1. Pagination: 37 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Hmong students face challenges in their educational pathways and academic performance. Researchers have offered multiple explanations for these challenges; however, a positive perspective is available: social and emotional learning and developmental skills and supports. Over 8000 Minnesota Hmong students reported exceptionally high levels of developmental measures in Commitment to Learning,Positive Identity,and Social Competence. In addition, although they report relatively positive Family/Community Support, it is significantly less than the levels of support reported by non-Hmong students. These developmental skills and supports are associated with school grades and interact in informative ways with other student characteristics.

Title: Hmong Male Youth and School Choice in a Neoliberal Era. Author: Kari Smalkoski. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Astract: This article critically examines the peer violence and social isolation that Hmong male youth encounter in a predominately white and affluent suburban middle school. It addresses the ways racialization impacts Hmong boys’ experiences with peers and how bullying narratives mask these conflicts. The research draws on a different set of questions about Hmong youths’ educational achievement to analyze, disrupting the belief that first generation Hmong male youths’ primary challenges in schools are learning English, assimilation, and shyness. I analyze the ways male youth respond to these narratives by creating their own forms of capital through the cultural practice of soccer where they create protective spaces that involve alternative masculinities and built-in peer support networks that create pathways to higher education.

Title: Navigating Graduate Education as a First-generation, Hmong American Woman: An Autoethnography. Author: Manee Moua. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 1. Pagination: 25 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study highlights the various identities of a Hmong American womanin graduate education by deconstructing the intersectionality of race, gender and culture that influences the way I navigated academia. Through a critical race feminist lens, my autoethnographic research highlights the diverse stories and experiences of me as a Hmong American woman, and illuminates the struggles and challenges I have encountered in graduate school. Furthermore, I deconstruct the gender and racial discourses that also revolve around culture and academia to create space and agency that will illuminate my personal stories as political learning.

Title: Critical Race Theory and Hmong American Education. Author: Christin DePouw. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 19, Issue 1. Pagination: 40 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Critical race theory (CRT) in education provides important conceptual tools in analyses of Hmong American education. CRT in education centers race and racism in relation to other axes of oppression, thereby locating educational inequities that Hmong American youth experience within appropriate historical, social, and institutional contexts. These contexts support deeper analyses that consider the sociopolitical and intersectional factors that affect Hmong American youth and their families. Importantly, these analyses provide Hmong American students with the concepts needed to name and validate their experiences as part of the development of critical race consciousness.

Title: Does Acculturation and Stigma Affect Hmong Women’s AttitudesToward and Willingness to Seek Counseling Services? Authors: Maiteng Lor, Emil Rodolfa and Beth Limberg. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: Volume 18, Issue 1. Pagination: 37 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Although the Hmong have resided in the United States since the 1970s, there has been limited research exploring the effect of acculturation and stigma on the Hmong community and their perspective of mental health services. This study investigated the relationship between Hmong women’s level of acculturation, perception of stigma, and the expression of attitudes toward professional psychological help and willingness to see a counselor.The 222 Hmong women completed a Demographic Questionnaire Form (DQF), the Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale (SL-ASIA), then the Stigma for Receiving Psychological Help (SSRPH), the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help-Short Form (SSRPH-SF), and finally, the Willingness to See a Counselor questionnaire (WSC). Almost 86% of the Hmong women were between 18 and 35 years old, and 96.4% lived in the United States for 20 or more years and almost 53% practice Shamanism. Data analysis of the research hypotheses found that there was a weak positive significant correlation between acculturation and willingness to seek services. Additionally, the relationship between acculturation and attitudes toward counseling services, expression of attitudes and perception of stigma was statistically significant. However, the relationships between the other study variables: perception of stigma and acculturation, expression of attitudes and acculturation, and acculturation and willingness were not statistically significant. The findings of this study will enhance our understanding of Hmong women and their views of counseling.

Title: Measuring Formal Intelligence in the Informal Learner: A Case Study of Hmong American Students and Cognitive Assessment. Authors: Carl Romstad and Zha Blong Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: Volume 18, Issue 1. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to illustrate the impracticality of using mainstream formalized methods of intellectual assessments to assess Hmong American children, who came from an informal learning environment. One hundred and fifty-four Hmong American students, ages 5-18, and 51 Caucasian students, ages 5-14, were assessed using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children –Second Edition(KABC-II), along with 46 Hmong American students, ages 7-14, who were assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children –Fifth Edition(WISC-V).Results showed that Hmong American students scored one standard deviation below the national mean on both the KABC-II and the WISC-V. These low scores were observed from samples of kindergarteners, kindergarten through 3rd grade, and students in the upper-level grades compared to a sample of Caucasian students from the same area. Some implications and future research directions are discussed.

Title: From Kwv Txhiaj and Paj Ntaub to Theater and Literature: The Role of Generation, Gender and Human Rights in the Expansion of Hmong American Art. Authors: Nengher N. Vang and Jeremy Hein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: Volume 18, Issue 1. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: After they arrived in the US, Hmong refugees expanded their artistic expressions from kwvtxhiaj(singing) and pajntaub (embroidery) to spoken word performances, plays, painting exhibits, poetry publications, and other creative genres. This article examines the thriving Hmong American arts scene in Minnesota to explain why these refugees invested scarce time and resources in art when they were still busy meeting basic needs and confronting external oppression. It presents the findings from content analysis of Hmong newspaper articles about 62 public art events involving 248 Hmong American artists from 2002 to 2011. The article shows that this ten-year period began with the first Hmong art exhibition and the first book of Hmong fiction in world history. These and other Hmong American art forms addressed three social problems: 1) intergenerational conflict; 2) gender inequality; and 3) human rights violations in Laos and the US. The development of Hmong American art was, therefore,a dynamic adaptation to new diaspora challenges rather than simply an attempt to preserve Hmong culture.

Title: Commentary: Ignorance as Bias: Radiolab, Yellow Rain, and “The Fact of the Matter.” Authors: Paul Hillmer and Mary Ann Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: Volume 18, Issue 1. Pagination: 13 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In 2012 the National Public Radio show “Radiolab” released a podcast (later broadcast on air) essentially asserting that Hmong victims of a suspected chemical agent known as “yellow rain” were ignorant of their surroundings and the facts, and were merely victims of exposure, dysentery, tainted water, and other natural causes. Relying heavily on the work of Dr. Matthew Meselson, Dr. Thomas Seeley, and former CIA officer Merle Pribbenow, Radiolab asserted that Hmong victims mistook bee droppings, defecated en masse from flying Asian honey bees, as “yellow rain.”They brought their foregone conclusions to an interview with Eng Yang, a self-described yellow rain survivor, and his niece, memoirist Kao Kalia Yang, who served as translator. The interview went horribly wrong when their dogged belief in the “bee dung hypothesis” was met with stiff and ultimately impassioned opposition. Radiolab’s confirmation bias led them to dismiss contradictory scientific evidence and mislead their audience. While the authors remain agnostic about the potential use of yellow rain in Southeast Asia, they believe the evidence shows that further study is needed before a final conclusion can be reached.

Title: Comparative Racialization and Unequal Justice in the Era of Black Lives Matter: The Dylan Yang Case. Authors: Pao Lee Vue, Louisa Schein and Bee Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: Volume 17, Issue 1. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Through a close examination of the Dylan Yang-Isaiah Powell case in Wausau, Wisconsin, we argue that while Hmong experiences may have remained marginalized or invisible in the era of Black Lives Matter, this case and the mobilization efforts around it suggest both commonalities and disjunctures among boys of color, especially in relation to the US justice system. The Dylan Yang case, in which a Hmong teen was convicted of murder for the stabbing of another boy,perceived to be black Latino,in an altercation at his home, demands comparative racialization analytics to gain perspective on the implementation of unequal justice.Unpacking the effects of the gangster stereotype, especially for Southeast Asian youth, we suggest how, despite the Asian American model minority trope, Hmong American boys have been racialized as monstrous thugs comparable (but not identical) to their black and Latino counterparts, and thus treated by law enforcement as suspects in need of “cataloging” as part of the school-to-prison pipeline. We also delve into the actual practices of young men in orderto reveal their strategies in tense and conflictual multiracial contexts, then turn to issues such as long sentences and juvenile solitary confinement that imply the disposability of young lives of color. We conclude with a curation of links to articles, blogs and social media that we invite readers to explore using the critical lens we provide.

Title: Evaluation of a Pilot Nutrition Education Program Delivered by Hmong Community Health Workers (CHWs) Author: Jeanette Treiber, Nestor Martinez, Kendra Thao, Jyotti Pannu and Diana Cassady, Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: Volume 17, Issue 1. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Many members of the Hmong population in the United States suffer from comparatively bad health. Moreover, disease prevention messaging that has traditionally been used through various media and healthcare outlets is not as successful with the Hmong as with the general population, due in part to cultural barriers. This paper explores whether community health workers (CHWs) may be a potentially successful way to deliver lessons in disease prevention, especially messages on healthy eating, drinking, and exercising. In addition, it explores the potential impact of a CHW program on participation in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). Following a literature review, a pilot project that used CHWs in the Hmong Community of Sacramento, California is described. It used KAP (Knowledge, Attitude, Practice) measures in a pre-post test. Statistically significant improvement was achieved in knowledge and attitude, and practice, but not in SNAP participation. The program and CHWs were well received as measured by a satisfaction survey of the 131 participants. Overall the pilot project proved to be successful.

Title: Perceptions of Risk for Hepatitis B Infection among the Hmong. Authors: Jennifer Kue, Sheryl Thorburn and Laura A. Szalacha,. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: Volume 17, Issue 1. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong in the U.S. who migrated from Southeast Asia, an area where hepatitis B is endemic, experience high rates of hepatitis B infection and liver cancer compared to non-Hispanic whites. This exploratory studyexamined the Hmong’s perceptions of risk of hepatitis B infection. We interviewed 83 Hmong women and men living in Oregon.In bivariate statistical analysis, greater perceived susceptibility, lower perceived barriers, and having a healthcare provider recommendation were each significantly related to having ever been screened for hepatitis B. Logistic regression models indicated that having a recommendation by a doctor or healthcare provider was the strongest predictor of having been screened for hepatitis B, followed by education and insurance. Future interventions with the Hmong population should focus on the important role of health care providers play in raising awareness about hepatitis B infection and increasing screening uptake

Title: The Centrality of Ethnic Community and the Military Service Master Frame in Hmong Americans’ Protest Events and Cycles of Protest, 1980-2010. Author: Yang Sao Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: Volume 17, Issue 1. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Protest is one political strategy by which marginalized groups can try to effect social change in society. As an ethnic group with a unique historical relationship with the United States government, Hmong former refugees have regularly engaged in protests in response to perceived political threats, political opportunities, or both. Using cataloged English-language newspapers, this study examines the characteristics, forms and collective action frames of 84 Hmong American-led protest events in the United States between 1980 and 2010. The evidence indicates that Hmong American protests emerged in the 1990s, coinciding with their formation of socioeconomically mobile ethnic communities,and continued to increase in frequency throughout the 2000s particularly in places with substantial concentrations of Hmong. Although most Hmong protest events involved demonstrations, these events varied greatly in terms of their targets and issues. During the past 30-35 years, Hmong American cycles of protest have produced three master frames: the refugee protection frame,the military service frame,and the civil rights frame. I argue that the military service frame represents one of the most enduring and, to date, most potent collective action frames in Hmong Americans’ modern repertoire of contention. Immigrant groups’ increasingly developed communities and their strategic use of collective action frames could have significant implications for their political incorporation in the United States.

Title: The Hmong in Argentina and their ‘convergence’ with the Rankülche. Author: Pasuree Luesakul. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: Volume 17, Issue 1. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: After the defeat of the United States in Laos in 1975, the Hmong’s resettlement in Argentina during their diaspora from refugee camps in Thailand is a topic that has yet to be fully studied. At the moment of their arrival, the Argentine political and historical context, that is, the military regime during the Dirty War (1976-1983), which was internationally condemned for thousands of cases of violation of human rights, and the Centenary Celebrations of the Conquest of the Desert (1878-1885), when the indigenous population was destroyed under the Europeanization plan of the government,specifically influenced the situation of the newcomers.One ofthese Argentinian ethnic peoples was the Rankülche who display surprising similarities with the Hmong. This coincidence has suggested a novel perspective from which to study the presence of refugees from Southeast Asia through a comparative study with the Argentine native group, who once occupied the land allocated for the newcomers a century later. In spite of a huge geographical gulf, both ethnic groups share geopolitical and cultural commonalities. They were also considered by the central governments, in Argentina, Thailand and nearby countries, as the ‘other’ in their ‘marginal’ land and, thus, constituted a ‘problem’ of national security that have resulted in them facing different destinies in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, respectively.

Title: The Qing Response to the Miao Kings of China’s 1795-7 Miao Revolt . Author: Daniel McMahon. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: Volume 17, Issue 1. Pagination: 37 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study examines Qing imperial attention to the messianic “Miao kings” of China’s 1795-7 Miao revolt --how state agents defined and handled these native contenders, as well what the rendering implied for ideas of regional Miao people and Hunan “Miao Frontier” planning. As will be seen, the Miao King Shi Sanbao, and Wu kings Wu Tianban and Wu Bayue, were consistently disparaged by governmental observers as false, deceptive, and crazed. This crafted image –shaped from reports, confessions, sentencing, punishment, pictures, and proclamations–served to clarify an imperial vision of rebel organization, specific challenges, and larger Miao “lunacy.” The framed Qing response was accordingly oriented not just toward the ritualized correction of leaders, but also the segregation of their Miao (Hmong) followers

Title: Review of Frontier Livelihoods: Hmong in the Sino-Vietnamese Borderlands. Author: Mai Na. M. Lee Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: Volume 17, Issue 1. Pagination: 9 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article consists of a book review of Frontier Livelihoods: Hmong in the Sino-Vietnamese Borderlands, a scholarly work focused on the socioeconomic experiences of the Hmong residing in Northern Vietnam.

Title: Genesis of the Hmong-American Alliance, 1949-1962: Aspirations, Expectations and Commitments during an Era of Uncertainty. Author: Frederic C. Benson. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 62 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Following an overview of the Franco-Hmong relationship that developed during the first half of the twentieth century and laid the groundwork for future alignments, the main body of this paper focuses on the formative years of the multi-faceted Hmong-American alliance that evolved between 1949 and 1962. Chronologically summarized, this period encompasses wide-ranging and often tumultuous events that ultimately put Laos in what has been described as the cockpit of the Cold War and placed the Hmong on the front lines. When the colonial French withdrew from Laos following the First Indochina War, the United States stepped in to fill the vacuum left behind in the politically unstable country, Washington’s objective being to neutralize Laos and block Communist infiltration from North Vietnam through northeastern Laos—the homeland of the Hmong—and into the Mekong valley, the heartland of the politically dominant Lao, and neighboring Thailand. Trapped in the middle were the Hmong, a multi-clan ethnic minority originally from China that was held in contempt by the governing Lao. The Hmong resettled mainly in Xieng Khouang, a province bordering Tonkin in Vietnam, a country whose hegemony the Hmong historically resisted. The pro-West paramount leaders of the Hmong, Touby Lyfoung and his successor Vang Pao, served as mediators between clan leaders and were mindful of the expectations of their people and their aspiration for freedom. Recognizing that the threat posed by the Vietnamese placed their homeland and livelihoods in jeopardy, they negotiated the support of powerful foreign patrons—the French and later the Americans—and served as intermediaries between the Hmong clan leaders, their foreign patrons, and successive Lao governments. As the showdown leading to the so-called “Secret War” edged forward, the political agendas of the key players were frequently readjusted in the volatile environment. This paper describes the resulting uncertainties that emerged as mutual commitments were made, the outcomes of which often took unexpected turns. As time passed, the Hmong became the principal instrument of a continued Royal Lao Government presence in northeastern Laos.

Title: Hmong Women and Education: Challenges for Empowerment in the Lao PDR. Author: Miki Inui. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study investigates how Hmong women’s educational access in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) has changed in recent decades. To investigate this developmental change, the study adapted a mixed research methodology; quantitative data was collected from the Lao national census. A series of qualitative interviews with research informants was also conducted. This study argues that for Hmong women in Laos, access to educational opportunities has been increasingly emphasized due to internal/external aid, which has positively impacted womens’ participation in the labor market, resulting in greater opportunities for empowerment. With regards to the latter, the lives of Hmong women have also changed significantly in recent years through increased access to higher-wage positions in Laos.

Title: Tebchaws: A Theory of Magnetic Media and Hmong Diasporic Homeland. Author: Mitch Ogden. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 25 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article theorizes forms of magnetic media—audio and video recordings—as a metaphor for diasporic memory. It then posits three versions of Hmong diasporic homeland imagination from the most immediate (a return to Laos), to ancestral China, and finally to an imagined utopic homeland theorized as tebchaws (DAY-char)—a term connoting place, land, and nation at once. Tebchaws becomes a critical piece of terminology that contributes to a theorization of Hmong diasporic homeland imagination. Examples of archival audio and video recordings are interpreted as manifestations of tebchaws, which draws heavily upon ecological sonic and visual images

Title: Negotiating Two Cultures: Hmong American College Women’s Experiences of Being a Daughter. Authors: Shuling Peng and Catherine Solheim. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Phenomenological analysis was used to explore 14 Hmong American college women’s perceptions of their relationships with their parents. Participants perceived they had become more psychologically close to their parents as well as becoming more independent from them. Participants also identified an important developmental task for them at this stage of their lives which was to balance two cultures, their culture of origin and U.S. culture. Implications for counselors are discussed.

Title: Hmong American Leadership and Unity in the Post-Vang Pao Era. Authors: Nengher N. Vang and Jeremy Hein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The passing of General Vang Pao (GVP) in a hospital in Clovis, California, in 2011 ended an historical era for Hmong Americans and the larger Hmong diaspora. This historical essay explores the changing meanings of leadership and unity for Hmong Americans in the post-GVP era. It first uses sociologist Max Weber's leadership criteria (rational, charismatic, and traditional authority) to explain Vang Pao’s enormous influence on the Hmong in Laos and as refugees in the Hmong diaspora. The essay then reviews current sources of rational, charismatic, and traditional leadership in Hmong American communities: electoral politics, non-profit organizations, religion, and clans. The essay concludes that it is unlikely that a large segment of Hmong Americans will ever again coalesce around one leader. Instead, two new political orientations may become more prevalent as the Hmong reconsider their place in the world: one that favors the local over the national, and another which favors transnationalism rather than the quest for their own nation-state.

Title: Displacing and Disrupting: A Dialogue on Hmong Studies and Asian American Studies. Authors: Hui Wilcox, Louisa Schein, Pa Der Vang, Monica Chiu, Juliana Hu Pegues and Ma Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article summarizes a roundtable discussion of scholars that took place at the Association for Asian American Studies Conference in San Francisco, 2014. Hailing from various academic disciplines, the participants explored the relationship between the emerging field of Hmong/Hmong American Studies and Asian American Studies. Questions of interest included: In what ways has Asian American Studies informed Hmong/Hmong American Studies, or failed to do so? In what ways does Hmong/Hmong American Studies enrich/challenge Asian American Studies? What are the tensions between these two fields and other related fields? How do/should the new programs in Hmong/Hmong American Studies relate to the existing Asian American Studies programs regarding curriculum, activism and/or resource allocation?

Title: Hmong Sexual Diversity: Beginning the Conversation. Authors: Kong Pheng Pha, Louisa Schein, and Pao Lee Vue. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In this paper, we describe a participatory workshop we facilitated on the diversity of Hmong sexualities and sexual norms – including our preparation leading up to the workshop and a summary of what we learned – at the 2015 Hmong National Development conference, which marked the 40th year that Hmong have been in the U.S. We also describe our positionalities and stakes in the matter as they helped to frame discussion. Topics discussed during the workshop included the “repressive” construction of “Hmong culture,” gender inequalities, desirability, sexual mores, LGBTQ identities and homoeroticism, virginity, sex acts and pornography. Participants engaged in lively conversation about issues of marriage, reproduction, hookups, sexual play, age and generation, sex education, and exclusion versus tolerance, amply underscoring the multiplicity of viewpoints that are represented among Hmong Americans. Finally, we raise the need for more community dialogues and more in-depth academic inquiry into Hmong sexualities.

Title: Review of Dreams of the Hmong Kingdom: The Quest for Legitimization in French Indochina, 1850-1960. Author: Nengher N. Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article provides a book review of Mai Na M. Lee’s Dreams of the Hmong Kingdom: The Quest for Legitimation in French Indochina, 1850-1960. Dreams of the Hmong Kingdom. It highlights the contribution of the book to the historiography of the Hmong and provides a critical assessment of the dichotomous analytical framework that Lee uses to analyze the rivalry between Hmong messianic leaders and Hmong political brokers and the competition between the Ly and Lo clans for paramountcy in French Indochina.

Title: Chao Fa Movies: The Transnational Production of Hmong American History and Identity. Author: Ian G. Baird. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Films made by and for particular social and ethnic peoples can reveal a great deal about identity issues. Here, I examine the cultural production, the content, and the socio-cultural and political significance of three Chao Fa-inspired Hmong films produced at Khek Noi, Thailand by Hmong American producers working with largely Hmong Thai actors. The first two, Chao Fa 1 and 2, were directed in 2009 by Kou Thao. The third, Vaj Tuam Thawj – The Legend of Chao Fa, was put together by Jimmy Vang, in 2010. Even though these Chao Fa films are fictional, they attempt to depict events and circumstances that are familiar to many first generation Hmong Americans, and they can muster strong emotions from people who see them as depicting factual history. In addition, just like many other American youth, many 1.5 generation Hmong are tied together by shared media experiences, including Hmong movies. Thus, the Chao Fa movies are important for producing and reproducing, reinforcing and dispersing ideas related to Hmong American identity and culture. They tell stories of the Hmong being oppressed by many different groups, and this history suggests why many Hmong—not only the Chao Fa—have long desired the type of independence and freedom from prejudice and discrimination that they imagine would come if the Hmong only had their own nation state.

Title: Prevalence of Periodontal Disease in the Fresno Hmong Community. Author: Mai Zong Her. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 13 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: There has been no research conducted in the past or present to examine the dental health of the Hmong population in California. Having lived and emigrated from the hills of developing countries, such as Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand, where there are a lack of resources and community outreach on basic oral care, the Hmong population received very minimal attention in regards to dental health. The purpose of this research paper is to analyze the statistical data collected at a private dental clinic run by a Hmong dentist, Dr. Kao N. Vang, to illustrate the prevalence of the periodontal diseases, gingivitis and periodontitis. The intention of this quantitative research is to obtain a general overview of dental health in the Fresno Hmong community, as well as to explore how the intersection of vulnerabilities, such as Western acculturation, socioeconomic status, and the lack of a formal education among Hmong people, have contributed to the deprivation of basic oral care and affected the overall dental health of the population.

Title: Stressing Success: Examining Hmong Student Success in Career and Technical Education. Author: Carmen M. Iannarelli. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study examines factors affecting the academic performance of Hmong students at Chippewa Valley Technical College in Eau Claire, WI. Factors specifically analyzed for their impact upon student success are socioeconomic status, family support, the use of academic support programs, and the influence of agents of socialization. Through the use of archival institutional data, Hmong students were compared to white students at CVTC in terms of their relative grade point averages, course completion rates, and retention rates. Data
revealed significant disparities in grade point average performance between Hmong and white students. The data also showed that eligibility for financial aid was significantly higher among Hmong students, and that this difference was commensurate with educational performance gaps between the two groups. Additionally, online surveys were used to assess family support while attending CVTC, the role of academic support programs, and influential agents of socialization. Gender differences in grade point average performance and socialization also were analyzed. Implications of the study’s findings are discussed and recommendations for improving the performance of Hmong students are provided.

Title: Utilizing Community-Engaged Approaches to Investigate and Address Hmong Women’s Cancer Disparities. Authors: Shannon M.A. Sparks, Pang C. Vang, Beth Peterman, Lisa Phillips and Mayhoua Moua
Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Cancer is a growing concern for women in the Hmong community. Hmong women experience poor health outcomes for both cervical and breast cancer, largely due to low rates of screening and resultant late-stage at diagnosis. Both breast and cervical cancer screening are complicated by a multitude of social, cultural and environmental factors which influence health care decision-making and can otherwise serve to restrict access.
We argue that community-engaged research, an orientation which prioritizes collaborative, equitable partnerships and community voice in identifying both problems and solutions, can be a valuable approach to helping address cancer health disparities for Hmong women. Using the Milwaukee-based “Healthy Hmong Women” project as a case example, we detail how the community-engaged approach implemented by the project partners was critical in identifying factors contributing to Hmong cancer disparities and appropriate interventions, as well as the overall acceptance and success of the project. Specifically, we discuss how this approach: (1) promoted community investment and ownership in the project; (2) facilitated the integration of local perspectives and experiences; (3) built capacity to address cancer screening disparities; (4) facilitated the creation of interventions targeting
multiple ecological levels; and (5) framed the community as the foundation and driver of positive change.

Title: Review of Soul Calling: A Photographic Journey through the Hmong Diaspora. Author: Kirk T. Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Book review of a photo essay book related to the Hmong experience as refugees and in the United States.

Title: Review of Hog’s Exit: Jerry Daniels, the Hmong, and the CIA. Author: Nengher N. Vang . Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Book review of a biography of Jerry Daniels, who worked with the Hmong during the CIA's Secret War in Laos.

Title: Hmong Across Borders or Borders Across Hmong? Social and Political Influences Upon Hmong People: Keynote Speech at the Hmong Across Borders Conference. Author: Prasit Leepreecha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong are a transnational ethnic people, because of their dispersal from China into Southeast
Asia in the early 19th century and from Southeast Asia to Western countries from 1975 onward. However, even within the context of Southeast Asia and southern China, the Hmong are a transnational ethnic group, due to state boundaries and the enforcement of international laws. Scholars speak as though the Hmong population has crossed political and legal borders by their movement across state boundaries and international borders. However, I argue that it is the political, social, and legal borders that have cut across the Hmong people and subjected them to be citizens of different modern nation-states. Even in the present time, these borders still, and continuously, play important roles that cross and divide the Hmong people into distinctive subgroups and fragments. In this article, I will start by describing the generally understood situation of Hmong being across national borders, and then will explain my argument that borders are across the Hmong.

Title: Hmong Research – Then and Now: Closing Keynote Speech at the Hmong Across Borders Conference. Author: Bruce T. Downing . Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article consists of the text of a speech delivered by Dr. Bruce T. Downing as the closing keynote speech at the Hmong Across Borders conference at the University of Minnesota in October 2013. The speech discusses how the author became involved in Hmong Studies and how the University of Minnesota came to take on an important role in Hmong Studies research in the early 1980s. The author also discusses his involvement in early Hmong refugee resettlement efforts in the U.S. and how the landscape of Hmong Studies has changed over the past several decades.

Title: Constructing a Governing Rationale: Developing Lao Hmong Refugees at Wat Tham Krabok. Author: David Chambers. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 13 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In this paper I argue that Thai discourses of modernization and development have been taken up by the leaders and other prominent monks at Wat Tham Krabok Buddhist Temple (WTK) in central Thailand’s Saraburi Province and directed at governing a settlement of mostly Lao Hmong refugees that made their home on temple controlled land from the 1990s to 2000s. Though decoding the motivations on the part of WTK’s leaders and other
senior monks for allowing thousands of Hmong to settle on WTK controlled land is a complex process, viewing the story through the lens of development teaches new things about their overarching motivations for such an intervention. Furthermore, it allows several aspects of their governing rationale—including attention to legibility, territoriality, infrastructural development—to stand out and reveals that WTK’s leaders enacted specific
projects that appear to be directed at governing, reforming, and possibly modernizing the Hmong population at WTK. The styles of this intervention varied between the temples second and third abbots, Chamroon and Charoen, in their respective use of discursive versus material means of intervention. Considering these goals in concert with the history of material construction at the temple highlights how the material and discursive aspects of life at WTK are recursively connected to reinforce regimes of Hmong development toward an ideal of modernity that pays homage to symbols of Thai modernity and legitimizes WTK as a worthy Buddhist institution.

Title: Crossing Borders in Birthing Practices: A Hmong Village in Northern Thailand (1987-2013). Authors: Kathleen A. Culhane-Pera, Sarinya Sriphetcharawut, Rasamee Thawsirichuchai, Wirachon Yangyeunkun and Peter Kunstadter. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Background: Over the past several decades in Northern Thailand, there has been a contest of authoritative knowledge between the Hmong traditional birth system and the Thai biomedical maternity system. In this paper, we explore the contest in one Hmong village by describing the traditional and biomedical practices; families’ birth location choices; and elements of authoritative knowledge. Methods: We built on a village survey and conducted an ethnographic qualitative case study of 16 families who made different pregnancy care choices. Results: The contest is being won by the Thai biomedical system, as most families deliver at the hospital. These families choose hospital births when they evaluate problems or potential problems; they have more confidence in the superior Thai biomedical system with its technology and medicines than in the inadequate Hmong traditional system. But the contest is ongoing, as some families prefer to birth at home. These families choose home births when they want a supportive home environment; they embrace traditional Hmong birth knowledge and practices as superior and reject hospital birth practices as unnecessary, harmful, abusive, and inadequate. Despite their choice for any given pregnancy, the case study families feel the pull of the other choice: hospital birth families lament loss of the home environment and express their dislike of hospital practices; and home birth families feel the anxiety of potentially needing quick obstetrical assistance that is far away. Conclusion: While most families choose to participate in the Thai biomedical system, they also use Hmong pregnancy and postpartum practices, and some families choose home births. In this village, the contest for the supremacy of authoritative birth knowledge is ongoing.

Title: Reflections on “Crossing Borders in Birthing Practices”:Hmong in Northern Thailand and Saint Paul, Minnesota. Author: Kathleen A. Culhane-Pera, Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 8 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: As a family physician and medical anthropologist, I have interacted with pregnant women and their families in Minnesota since 1983 and in one Hmong village in Northern Thailand since 1988. In the previous article I describe our recent research about Hmong families’ pregnancy and birth practices in Thailand. In this article, I
reflect upon the differences in Minnesota and Thailand, consider what socio-cultural factors may be influencing people’s experiences, and speculate that Minnesota Hmong experiences could be helpful to Thai Hmong.

Title: Mental Health and Hmong Americans: A comparison of two generations. Author: Pa Der Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Early studies of Hmong refugees in the U.S. indicated high rates of mental distress related to post-migration stressors such as grief and loss, poverty, and social adversity. This study explores the mental health status of two generations of Hmong Americans 38 years after their first migration. The relationship between acculturation and mental health of 191 1st and 2nd generation Hmong are reported. Results indicated relatively low reports of depressive symptoms and medium to high rates of acculturation to American society. The results are unrelated to demographic factors indicating resilience and adaptation to Western society despite age and generational status and maintenance of culture of origin.

Title: Youtube and the Hmong qeej. Author: Catherine Falk. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 64 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper focuses on the iconic Hmong musical instrument, the qeej, and its presence in cyberspace on YouTube videos. Hmong in the west now engage in an implicit auto-ethnography using this technology presenting new constructions of themselves to themselves as well as to other, non-Hmong people. These constructions contribute to both literate and oral representations of pan-Hmong identity.

Title: Can You "Stand Your Ground" If You Are Hmong? Revisiting Wisconsin v. Vang In Light of Florida v. Zimmerman. Author: Jeremy Hein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 19 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The 2012 shooting death of Trayvon Martin is widely seen as an unintended outcome of prejudice and misperception and therefore frequently is called a "tragedy."That is also the interpretation that the Hmong American media had of events in Wisconsin in 2004when Chai Vang shot eight white hunters who surrounded, taunted, and blocked his path as he attempted to walk away. This article analyzes 96St. Paul Pioneer Press articles on the Wisconsin hunting shootings to evaluate how key words in headlines defined the event for readers. The results show that within the first nine days of coverage the newspaper developed a contradictory vocabulary that included the terms "dispute," "rampage," "tragedy," and "homicide." After creating this lexicon the newspaper then introduced the highly sensationalized terms"massacre" and "slayings."The article concludes that the Hmong American media had the correct interpretation and that mainstream media bias prevented the deeper message of the Wisconsin hunting shootings from being learned: guns + prejudice = tragic violence.

Title: Mental Health of Hmong Americans: A Metasynthesis of Academic Journal Article Findings. Author: Song E. Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The mental health of Hmong Americans has been studied since their arrival in the United States. The purpose of this metasynthesisis to utilize a qualitative approach to analyze academic journal article studies that assess mental health issues in Hmong Americans. Forty-eight published articles from 1983 to 2012 were chosen for analysis. Each of the selected articles focused on Hmong participants and contained findings relevant to the psychological well-being of Hmong Americans. Results of this study revealed several common themes: trends in research, depression,anxiety, adjustment issues, family issues, substance abuse, other mental health concerns, factors linked to mental health, help seeking behavior and perceptions, effectiveness of mental health treatments, strengths and resiliency, and supportive factors.

Title: Minority status and schooling of the Hmong group in Vietnam. Authors: Minh Phuong Luong and Wolfgang Nieke. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 37 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study examines the disproportionately poor academic performance of the Hmong among the minorities in Vietnam by using Ogbu’s cultural ecological theory (Ogbu, 2003). Societal and school factors have been assumed by many policy makers and scholars to affect minorities’ equally, but the paper argues that may not be the case when minority status is taken into account. “Community forces”are pointed to as the putative cause of the Hmong’s differential academic performance. “Community forces” of each ethnic group are related to their status as a minority group,which orients their interpretations and responses to schooling. In this paper, the minority status of the Hmong is explained through their group development history, settlement patterns, livelihoods and economic adaptive strategies and political participation through a review of the scholarly literature on the Hmong. Additionally, field research was conducted in Vietnam using a grounded theory approach to ethnography to understand how minority status influences community forces, and in turn, how these community forces affect the schooling of Hmong students.

Title: Of Pride and Pencils: Deconstructing the Role of Ethnic Pride in Hmong Adolescent Identity Formation . Author: Jacqueline Nguyen. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 19 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study examines the ways that Hmong adolescents describe ethnic pride and how their descriptions are informed by perceptions of collective and social identities. Data from semi-structured interviews with 25 Hmong adolescents age 12-18 were thematically analyzed with attention to affective versus behavioral aspects of ethnic pride and the role of collective or social group identities in adolescent pride perceptions or expressions. Results indicate that Hmong adolescents view affective and behavioral components of ethnic pride as distinct and evaluated self and peer pride along these two dimensions. Moreover, pride was found to be defined as both an individual characteristic and a social construct, and the perception and expression of the term was informed by Hmong adolescent peer groups and collective identities.

Title: Genetic Research with Hmong-ancestry Populations: Lessons from the Literature and a Pilot Study. Authors: Donny Xiong, Jennifer Meece and Caitlin Pepperell. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 28 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Genetic research with Hmong-ancestry populations has examined differentiation among other Southeast Asian groups and select health conditions; however, there have been few discussions of specific methodological approaches in the literature. Studies within ethnically diverse communities must conduct culturally competent research in order to avoid stigmatization and harm to the communities. We present recommendations for conducting culturally competent genetic research with Hmong-ancestry populations through insights from interviews and observations from a pilot study examining a potential genetic basis of susceptibility to a fungal infection within a Hmong community. Implications for future genetic-based health research and public health are discussed.

Title: Shamanism: Indications and Use by Older Hmong Americans with Chronic Illness. Author: Linda A. Gerdner. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article reports qualitative interviews from an ethnographic study that explored in part, the health seeking behaviors of and for older Hmong Americans with chronic illness. The study occurred over a 36-month period in the St. Paul /Minneapolis area of Minnesota.

Title: The Grammar and Vocabulary Challenges of Generation 1.5 Hmong College Women in Academia. Author: Kim Huster. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 30 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Higher education institutions in the United States are seeing steadily increasing numbers of Generation 1.5 students from long-term immigrant populations. As part of this trend, more and more Hmong young people are successfully completing graduate and undergraduate degrees; however, by their own admission, many continue to struggle with English and are often frustrated in their college experiences by ongoing language challenges. A narrative research study of 13 Hmong women at a small private liberal arts college in northern California revealed specific types of grammatical and vocabulary limitations experienced by these students. These limitations are demonstrated through samples taken from oral and written stories told by the women. The article concludes with a discussion of the possible reasons for these limitations and then suggestions for ways that teachers and students may be able to enhance the language and literacy development process for Generation 1.5 populations including the Hmong.

Title: Hmong Students’ Perceptions of Their Family Environment: A Consensual Qualitative Analysis of Family Photos. Authors: Dung Mao, Veronica Deenanath and Zha Blong Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Although various studies have examined the home environment of low-income families and its impact on children’s development, limited research has been done to investigate the impact of home environment on Hmong American families, especially those who live below the federal poverty line. The purpose of this study was to document from the students’ perspective what it is like to live and grow up in a poor family. Fifteen Hmong students in 5th through 8th grades took part in the photovoice project. The consensual qualitative analyses of the photos and interviews revealed two domains (family physical home environment and family activities), seven themes (crowded space, unkempt space, equipped with media,generational and gender separation, parental involvement, organization of daily life, and social connections) and 38 core ideas.Some implications of the study are proposed for educators who work with Hmong families

Title: The Importance of Family for a Gay Hmong American Man: Complicating Discourses of “Coming Out”. Author: Bic Ngo. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article draws on research with a gay Hmong young man to illustrate the ways in which coming out discourses fail to take into account the central importance of family and kinship for gay Hmong Americans.It draws on the narratives of a gay Hmong man that emphasizes the importance of family reputation and family bonds to offer an alternative discourse to coming out narratives. It advances understandings of gay identity and experiences by explicating the ways in which family and community are important for a gay Hmong American man. This research significantly contributes to the dearth of research on Asian American LGBT experiences in general and those of LGBT Hmong Americans in particular

Title: Singing as Social Life: Three Perspectives on Kwv Txhiaj from Vietnam. Author: Lonán Ó Briain. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Despite the recent influx of predominantly foreign-produced recordings of Hmong popular music, the vocal art form of kwv txhiaj still plays an important role in the daily lives of many Vietnamese-Hmong people. While previous studies of Vietnamese-Hmong music have tended to focus solely on the musical sounds, this article attempts to illustrate how kwv txhiaj is made meaningful in live performance by contextualizing the musical examples with ethnographic data. Using Timothy Rice’s Time, Place, and Metaphor model (2003) as a theoretical basis, three contrasting case studies of singers and their songs are examined: an elderly woman sings a song she learned at the time of her marriage at the age of nine, a younger woman sings while planting rice in her fields, and another sings about the importance of education at the local government cultural center. Based on fifteen months of fieldwork in northern Vietnam, this study examines a representative sample of performances from the Sa Pa district of Lào Cai province in an attempt to uncover what makes kwv txhiaj a vital aspect of Vietnamese-Hmong culture.

Title: The Mediated Figure of Hmong Farmer, Hmong Studies, and Asian American Critique. Author: Hui Niu Wilcox. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The objective of this article is two-fold: First, it argues for critical engagement between Hmong Studies and Asian American Studies. Second, to illustrate the productivity of such engagement, this article analyzes the media coverage of an incident involving Hmong American farmers and their white neighbors in Eagan, Minnesota, June 2010. The focal question is how media discourses around farming and immigration serve to racialize Hmong American identities.This analysis shows that Hmong Americans experience “Asiatic racialization”in that they are either discursively cast outside of the imagined American nation, or included contingent upon assimilation and conformity. Critiquing both the exclusionary and assimilative narratives, this article explicates the inherent contradictions of the U.S.nationalism, referencing both existing Hmong Studies literature and Asian Americanist discourses on race and nation. Both bodies of work foreground the historical and social construction of identities, as well as the simultaneous, intertwined workings of race, class, gender/sexuality and nation. Critical dialogues could generate new ideas and possibilities for both Asian American Studies and Hmong Studies.

Title: The Evolution of Hmong Self-Help Organizations in Minnesota. Author: Shoua Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong have several types of self-help organizations, classified accordingly to their purposes, to assist the Hmong to adapt to life in American culture. The central research question of this modest exploratory study relates to how these organizations have evolved over the years in terms of their programming focus and funding strategies. To answer this question, a qualitative approach is used to guide the collection and analysis of data.The study was conducted in the St. Paul/Minneapolis region from 2007 to 2012, where a large population of Hmong refugees has settled since the mid-1970s and where these organizations were founded.

Title: Commentary: Gender-based Violence among the (H)mong. Author: Jacques Lemoine. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Prepared for the Seminar on Cultural Factors in the Prevention and Promotion of Gender-Based Violence held at UNESCO Bangkok on 17-18 May 2012, this article presents the current state of the subject in the patrilineal, patrilocal and patriarchal (H)mong society. After delineating carefully (H)mong GBV through rape, marriage customs, domestic verbal and physical abuses and,in some cases,murder, the author investigates the roots of GBV in different directions: gender asymmetry and inequality; tribal culture and the clan system; the function of the bride price; women’s social mobility in the U.S. and values clashes with American values. After a thorough anthropological analysis, the author concludes that GBV has nothing to do with the clan system, the backbone of the tribal society, but rather involves a long-lasting borrowing of Chinese patterns from the (H)mong past in Imperial China,which could be amended. Gender inequality will hopefully regress if shame, a powerful means of social control among the (H)mong, is used to deter GBV

Title: Commentary: A Framework for 21st Century Hmong Leadership. Author: Pao Lor. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The passing of General Vang Pao in January 2011invoked many emotions throughout the Hmong communities in America and abroad and became an impetus for transitional leadership efforts in the Hmong American community. As such, the authors were compelled to share some thoughts on a leadership framework that could serve as a guide, resource, and reference for those who find themselves within leadership positions in the Hmong community. Our proposed framework consists of three major components: 1) knowledge of the Hmong leadership continuum, 2) the infusion of a culturally embedded leadership structure into one’s leadership style,and 3) an embracing of the key attributes of leadership. The leadership framework utilized in this commentary article is drawn from several key sources including the academic literature, ethnographic observations, and professional experiences.

Title: Commentary: Mis-Education in K-12 Teaching about Hmong Culture, Identity, History and Religion. Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This commentary article discusses several examples of inaccurate information about the Hmong presented in contemporary materials produced by school district staff and/or published by mainstream publishers in the United States for use with the K-12 market to teach about Hmong culture and history.

Title: Book Review: Hmong and American: From Refugees to Citizens. Author: Kong Pheng Pha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: A book review of a scholarly compilation related to Hmong American identity.

Title: Drama Review: At Secret’s End: American Hmong: A Memoir Play. Author: Louisa Schein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 6 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Review of a play focused on the Hmong American experience.

Title: Book Review: An Introduction to Hmong Culture. Author: Yeng Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 7 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Review of an introductory reader on Hmong culture.

Title: Hmong Population and Demographic Trends in the 2010 Census and 2010 American Community Survey. Authors: Mark E. Pfeifer, John Sullivan, Kou Yang and Wayne Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Utilizing 2010 data from the U.S. Census and the American Community Survey, this article discusses shifting Hmong population trends at the national, regional, metropolitan and census tract level. The article also assesses contemporary Hmong demographics across the U.S. including age distribution, gender distribution, disability status, health insurance coverage and naturalization and foreign-born status. Policy implications of the population and demographic trends presented in the article are discussed.

Title: Making Ends Meet: Hmong Socioeconomic Trends in the U.S. Author: Chia Youyee Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article examines Hmong socioeconomic trends from 1990 to 2010. A review of economic indicators across states and in relation to the U.S.population reveals that on an aggregate level, the Hmong American population’s socioeconomic status has improved significantly. The increases in income and earnings have, however, been shortchanged by external factors brought about partially by the financial crisis and its aftermath. Consequently, this begs us to question the extent to which such developments contribute to the overall economic well being of Hmong Americans.

Title: Hmong Americans’ Educational Attainment: Recent Changes and Remaining Challenges. Author: Yang Sao Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Using U.S. Census data from 1990 to 2010, this paper examines Hmong Americans’ language use, English language ability, school attendance, high school dropout rate, and educational attainment. The data reveal significant improvements in Hmong Americans’ English language ability, attendance at higher levels of education, and higher education completion. The data also show that there are differences between states, between males and females, and between age cohorts with respect to certain educational outcomes. Additionally, the gap between Hmong females and males in terms of high school dropouts and educational attainment has narrowed considerably. I discuss the implications of these findings and consider some of the persistent structural challenges that Hmong American students continue to face in K-12 public schools.

Title: Til Divorce Do Us Apart: Sex, State of Residence, and Divorce among Hmong Americans. Author: Nao Xiong and Ger Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Data from the American Community Survey (ACS) 2008-2010wereused to analyze the relationship between current marital status (divorced versus married) and sex,and to examine how this relationship varies for the Hmong across states. Women, when adjusted for age group and state of residence,were not significantly more likely than men to report that they were divorced.Those in Minnesota were almost two times more likely than those in California to report being divorced even after controlling for sex and age group.There was no significant difference in divorce reporting between Wisconsin and California Hmong. The findings suggest that divorced Hmong women,like divorced women in the United States in general, tend to remain unmarried for a longer period of time than their men counterparts.

Title: Health Disparities Research in the Hmong American Community: Implications for Practice and Policy. Authors: Kari Smalkoski, Nancy K. Herther, Zha Blong Xiong, Karen Ritsema, Rebecca Vang and Ri Zheng. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Since the first wave of their arrival to the U.S. over 30 years ago, the Hmong population has grown substantially. Although the focus on health disparities has led to improvements in recent decades in the health of the U.S. population as a whole, many non-white populations continue to lag behind. One such population is the Hmong. This article reviews medical studies since 1990 that focus on Hmong health issues and argues for long-term funding at the state and federal levels as well as immediate support to address the health needs of this significantly growing population. Furthermore, the authors argue that existing anecdotal reports and findings on the Hmong population require greater attention, further study, and a commitment to work for change.

Title: Revisiting 37 Years Later: A Brief Summary of Existing Sources Related to Hmong and their Mental Health Status. Authors: Serge Lee and Jenny Chang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 13 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper discusses the complexities of assessing the current mental illness rate of the Hmong in the United States utilizing existing refereed journal articles as well as other sources. It is not intended to discuss mental health cultural competency practices with Hmong patients, an issue that has been addressed in other articles. The present article aims at assessing the current status of mental illness-related research data among Hmong Americans with the goal of encouraging researchers to develop research designs that will provide more substantive data related to Hmong mental health conditions as well as other correlated variables.

Title: Writing Citizenship: Flexible Forms of Belonging in Kao Kalia Yang’s The Late Homecomer. Author: Aline Lo. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 15 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article draws on the idea of a more flexible category of citizenship from Michel Laguerre and Bonnie Honig, arguing that Kao Kalia Yang’s The Latehomecomer presents readers with a displacement narrative that negates national belonging and the traditional myth of immigrant America, and, instead, upholds an idea of self-identification that is based not on the nation-state, but on family continuity and finding refuge in writing.

Title: Political Transmigrants: Rethinking Hmong Political Activism in America. Author: Nengher N. Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 47 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Since the initial resettlement of the Hmong in the United States in the mid-1970s, they have maintained strong political and military relationships with the Lao People‘s Democratic Republic (LPDR). Yet, there is little research on that relationship and the involvement of the Hmong in the United States in political developments in Laos. Most works on Hmong political activism have focused on the electoral participation and representation of Hmong Americans in relation to American domestic politics. In this article, using archival, ethnographic, and interview data that have collected between 2006 and 2009 in Laos, Thailand, and the United States, I describe and analyze the non-domestic or transnational form of Hmong American political expression and participation. I argue that Hmong political activism in America not only was transnational from the outset, but that their transnational involvement in political developments in Laos and their relations with the Lao PDR government also had a significant impact on their ethnic politics. Many Hmong political activists made their entry into ethnic politics through the door of transnational politics, and many were motivated by transnational political issues to participate in domestic American politics. By exploring their transnational involvement in political developments in Laos and their relations with the Lao PDR government, we get a more complete and dynamic understanding of Hmong political activism in the United States than is possible by focusing exclusively on domestic and electoral participation. Examining their transnational politics also allows us to see the transnationality of not only their culture, identity, and community but also that of their political activities and aspirations.

Title: Hmong Students in Higher Education and Academic Support Programs. Authors: Soua Xiong and Song E. Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Student awareness, usage, and perception of academic support programs were examined among 55 Hmong college students at a large, public western university. Twenty-eight students had participated in one or more ASPs while 27 students had not participated in any ASPs.Those who had participated found the programs to be supportive with an average rating of 7.39 out of 10 (10 being most supportive). The majority of students who did not participate in ASPs reported that they were not aware of ASPs and their services.Results also show that the majority of Hmong college students perceived a lack of time to study, poor study habits, lack of money, lack of motivation, lack of direction on career goals, and poor time management to be obstacles for them in higher education. Based on the findings, it seems ASPs were not able to reach some Hmong students with their outreach efforts. However, those that they were able to reach found academic support services helpful, especially with financial concerns and direction on career goals

Title: The Prevalence of English Monolingualism and Its Association with Generational Status among Hmong Americans, 2005-2009. Authors: Yang Sao Xiong and Nao Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Using the American Community Survey‟s multi-year (2005-2009) Public Use Microdata Sample, we estimate the prevalence of English monolingualism and statistically analyze the association between English monolingualism and generational status within the U.S. Hmong population. Our findings show that the odds of speaking only English among the second generation is almost three times more compared to the first generation. Data from the 2009 ACS PUMS further indicate that there is a linear and positive relationship between generational status and English speaking ability. We discuss how English monolingualism, when reinforced by Hmong‟sage structure and immigration pattern, could impact Hmong Americans‟ rate of household linguistic isolation and their maintenance of oral tradition.

Title: Predicting Hmong Male and Female Youth’s Delinquent Behavior: An Exploratory Study. Authors: Zha Blong Xiong and Ju-Ping Huang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Asian Americans have been viewed as a “model” minority by mainstream Americans for decades.Contrary to the model minority stereotype, however, Asian youth, especially Hmong and other Southeast Asians,are increasingly involved in crimes and delinquent activities.Yet, little research has focused on them, particularly Hmong youth. The present study addressed this gap in the literature by exploring the relative importance of individual, peer, family, and school factors in explaining Hmong youth‟s delinquent behavior in both male and female. Two hundred and six Hmong youth(115 males and 91 females), ages ranged from 11 to25 years old,from Minnesota participated in the survey. The survey results showed that antisocial attitudes, academic achievement, and the lack of the mother‟s monitoring were the three factors that significantly explained youth‟s chances of being involved in delinquent acts regardless of their gender. However, when the youth were examined separately by gender, the results showed significant variations.The study ends with a few strategies offered for parents and school officials to prevent and intervene with delinquent behavior in the Hmong community.

Title: Commentary: The (H)mong Shamans’ Power of Healing: Sharing the Esoteric Knowledge of a Great Mong Shaman. Author: Jacques Lemoine. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In this work, the author clarifies and provides additional information about his anthropological work over the past several decades with Mong Master Shaman Xyooj Tsu Yob and his disciples. This commentary article is intended as a response to Dr. Nicholas Tapp’s “Perspectives on Hmong Studies” published in Volume 11 of the Hmong Studies Journal.

Title: Video Review: Better Places: The Hmong of Rhode Island a Generation Later. Author: Chia Youyee Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 3 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article provides a review of Better Places: a documentary that follows up with Hmong families who were originally part of a film produced in the early 1980s about the resettlement experiences of Hmong refugees in Providence, Rhode Island.

Title: The Hmong Come to Southern Laos: Local Responses and the Creation of Racialized Boundaries Author: Ian G. Baird. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 38 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: There is a long history of Hmong migrations from the north to south. Most recently, Hmong have begun emerging in the southern-most parts of Laos, including Champasak and Attapeu Provinces, places where they never lived before, and some Hmong have tried to move south from Bolikhamxay to Khammouane Province.Southern Laos would appear to represent anew southern ̳frontier‘ for the Hmong. This article looks at the interactions between the Hmong who have attempted to migrate into southern Laos and the Lao and Mon-Khmer language-speaking peoples they have encountered. Some Hmong movements into southern Laos have been accepted, while others have not. Crucially, negative racialized stereotypes about the Hmong being aligned with anti-government resistance groups, and being inherently destructive of the environment—as unfair as they may be—have influenced the prejudiced responses in southern Laos to the arrival of the Hmong.Others simply see the Hmong as being difficult to get along with and administer(still another unfair stereotype). The cultural practices and habits of some Hmong arrivals have confused and upset some Mon Khmer language-speaking peoples in southern Laos. The movement of the Hmong from the north to the south, and the reactions of others to them, are important for understanding the ways Hmong are geographically positioning themselves, and how others are attempting to construct spaces and associated boundaries designed to restrict them. Thus,the focus of this article is on the reactions of others to the Hmong, and the way particular racialized boundaries have been developed.

Title: Acculturation Processes of Hmong in Eastern Wisconsin. Authors: John Kha Lee and Katherine Green. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study examines acculturation processes among Hmong who live in Eastern Wisconsin by using the East Asian Acculturation Measure(EAAM), which was developed by Barry (2001). The results indicated that in terms of Acculturation, Hmong ranked highest in integration, then separation, assimilation, and lastly marginalization. Questions on each dimension of integration, separation, assimilation, and marginalization were analyzed and positive correlations were found between the youngest of the generations, the length of residency in the United States, and the ability to speak, read, and write in English. In contrast, the older the age of the participant when they came to the United States had a positive correlation with separation. The ability to speak, read, and write in English had a positive correlation with assimilation, and the older the age of coming to the United States had a positive correlation with marginalization. Assimilation and separation had a positive correlation with marginalization, while integration had a negative correlation with marginalization and a positive correlation with assimilation, and separation had no correlation with marginalization. Results are discussed in regards to previous Hmong acculturation studies.

Title: Access to Adequate Healthcare for Hmong Women: A Patient Navigation Program to Increase Pap Test Screening. Authors: Penny Lo, Dao Moua Fang, May Ying Ly, Susan Stewart, Serge Lee and Moon S. Chen Jr.. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 29 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper describes the development and implementation of a Hmong Cervical Cancer Intervention Program utilizing a patient navigation model to raise cervical cancer awareness for Hmong women through educational workshops and to assist Hmong women in obtaining a Pap test. Out of 402 women who participated in a baseline survey, the Patient Navigation Program was able to enroll 109participantswho had not had a Pap test in the past 3 years and had never had a Pap test.Through utilization of outreach, an awareness campaign and patient navigation support,at least 38percent of 109 participants obtained a Pap test.Overall, 21 workshops and 43 outreach activities were conducted by the Hmong Women’s Heritage Association, leading to 63 percent of those enrolled in the Patient Navigation Program who could be contacted to obtain a Pap test.

Title: A Hmong Birth and Authoritative Knowledge: A Case Study of Choice, Control, and the Reproductive Consequences of Refugee Status in American Childbirth. Author: Faith Nibbs. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: One area in which anthropologists are concerned is in examining what the state of good health consists of from society to society, and what happens when practitioners of western medicine intersect with people who hold other explanations of well being. This paper explores how the western medical practices of childbirth in America are forced on Hmong refugee childbirth, and therefore, used as a continuation of governmentality, or refugee objectification. Ethnographic data is drawn from a case study of Hmong experiences with the birth process in an American hospital setting. Parallels are drawn between refugee resettlement programs which ultimately produce bodies that are objects of the state; and authoritative medical knowledge in childbirth which produces bodies that are objects of medicine. This research suggests that the American birth process becomes yet another site of refugee reprogramming and a struggle between western medicine and the refugee‟s understanding of experience.

Title: Parental Influences on Hmong University Students’ Success. Authors: Andrew J. Supple, Shuntay
Z. McCoy and Yudan Wang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 37 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study reports findings from a series of focus groups conducted on Hmong American university students. The purpose of the focus groups was to understand how, from the perspective of Hmong American students themselves, acculturative stress and parents influenced academic success. Findings of a thematic analysis centered on general themes across focus group respondents that related to parental socialization, gendered socialization, and ethnic identification. Each identified themes is discussed in reference to gendered patterns of experiences in Hmong American families and in reference to academic success.

Title: Interview: Gran Torino’s Hmong Lead Bee Vang on Film, Race, and Masculinity: Conversations with
Louisa Schein. Author: Louisa Schein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 11 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Bee Vang, of Minneapolis, played the Hmong lead Thao Vang Lor in Clint Eastwood's 2008 Gran Torino. He was sixteen when he shot the film and had no acting training. For 27 days on location in urban Detroit he played before a Hollywood crew opposite an icon of the film industry doing multiple takes of each scene and camera angle. The shoot was full of unexpected twists and turns some of which he recounts in these interchanges with Hmong media expert Louisa Schein of the Departments of Anthropology and Women's and Gender Studies at Rutgers University. Over several conversations, condensed here, Vang and Schein talk about Gran Torino, about acting and film critique, about immigrants and stereotypes, about masculinity and sexuality, and about Vang's vision for what needs to change to address problems of race and inequality in and beyond media worlds.

Title: Commentary: Perspectives on Hmong Studies: Speech by Dr. Nicholas Tapp on Receiving the Eagle
Award at the Third International Conference on Hmong Studies, Concordia University, Saint
Paul, April 10, 2010. Author: Nicholas Tapp. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article consists of the text of a speech delivered by Dr. Nicholas Tapp on the occasion of receiving the Eagle Award for contributions to Hmong Studies at the Third International Conference on Hmong Studies at Concordia University, Saint Paul on April 10, 2010. The speech discusses how the author became involved in Hmong Studies and his assessment of several key issues confronting researchers studying Hmong culture and Hmong populations around the world.

Title: Commentary: The Hmong and their Perceptions about Physical Disabilities: An Overview and Review of Selected Literature. Authors: Grace Hatmaker, Helda Pinzon-Perez, Xong Khang and Connie Cha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong are one of the fastest growing populations in Central California.Hmong refugee families arrived in Fresno in the late 1970s facing a variety of challenges regarding their traditional health beliefs and the customs of mainstream Western biomedicine. Differing and sometimes conflicting perceptions about physical disabilities have resulted in painful misunderstandings between Hmong families and Western health care providers.The aim of this paper is to present a review of some of the Hmong health belief literature concerning physical disabilities in children. It also includes commentaries from those who work with the Hmong families of physically disabled children

Title: Photo Essay: Patterns of Change: Transitions in Hmong Textile Language. Author: Geraldine Craig. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 48 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In traditional Hmong life, women produced complex textiles as markers of clan identity and cultural values. Paj ntaub (flower cloth), created by embroidery, appliqué, reverse appliqué, and indigo batik (among the Blue or Green Hmong), were primary transmitters of Hmong culture from one generation to the next over centuries. Clothing, funeral and courtship cloths, baby carriers and hats were designed with traditionally geometric, abstract patterns Hmong could understand as a shared visual language within an oral culture. This photo essay introduces the author’s twenty-five year fascination with paj ntaub and documents a trip to Laos and northern Thailand in November/December 2009 to discover whether story cloths were being produced in Hmong villages in Laos or if story cloths remain a product of refugees only. The researcher also hoped to learn whether traditional Hmong clothing is still produced and worn in the Laos, to observe how Hmong textiles are made and consumed for a tourist market, and to discover possible sources for the dramatic shift in paj ntaub visual language from symbolic abstraction to pictorial representation.

Title: Gran Torino's Boys and Men with Guns: Hmong Perspectives . Authors: Louisa Schein and Va-Megn Thoj. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 52 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article discusses the Clint Eastwood film Gran Torino in the context of American popular mis-representations of Hmong and from the perspectives of the film‘s Hmong actors and viewers. The analysis begins from the images of Hmong as ―perpetual warrior,‖ ferocious killers ill-fit for American society, and docile fresh-off-the-boat foreigners needing help and protection by white saviors. The bulk of the article presents an interpretation of the recent box office hit Gran Torino radically different from contemporary mainstream response which has centered on Eastwood‘s character and viewed the film mainly as a vision of multicultural inclusion and understanding. This alternate ―ethnotextual approach, reflecting the conversations of a Hmong studies anthropologist and a Hmong filmmaker/activist, includes the perspectives of Hmong involved in creating the film and considers critical response to the final product within the Hmong community. Despite a script that called on them to portray violent gangbanger and hapless Hmong immigrant stereotypes, Hmong actors encourage us to value their creativity in shaping the film through enacting certain roles, no matter how conventionalized, and to expose the film as a white man‘s fantasy

Title: From Miao to Miaozu - Alterity in the Formation of Modern Ethnic Groups. Author: Zhiqiang Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 28 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In China, the Miao ethnic group has been known for its long and tragic history. This image, however, was formed only during the modern era. Using a historiographical approach, this paper reviews and analyzes the process through which the Chinese Miao emerged as a modern ethnic group. Specifically, it focuses on the transition from `Miao' as a blanket term for non-Han ethnic groups in southern China during the pre-modern period to `Miaozu' as a modern ethnic group, originally constructed in the context of the emergence of Chinese nationalism at the beginning of the 20th century in the context of the domineering `Other' of Han culture and eventuating in the official recognition of fifty-six minority nationalities (shaoshu minzu) in the 1950s. Based on this study, this paper then goes on to a theoretical discussion on the question of alterity in the formation of ethnic groups.

Title: Citation Analysis and Hmong Studies Publications: An Initial Examination. Author: Nancy K. Herther. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: As a field of study, Hmong Studies has been developing and growing over the past thirty years. Has the field developed to the point of having any clearly defined sets of key journals, publishers, authors, or institutions? Bibliometrics offers a set of tools that allows library and information researchers to look for patterns of publication which might help to answer these questions. In this initial study, using a variety of publications and databases, it was found that the field is still evolving with no clear boundaries or established “best” journals, institutions for research or other clear patterns.

Title: Searching for the Hmong People’s Ethnic Homeland and Multiple Dimensions of Transnational Longing: From the Viewpoint of the Hmong in Laos. Author: Sangmi Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper examines how Hmong people in the diaspora imagine each other and develop diverse and multidimensional types of longing in the absence of a “true” ethnic homeland. Even before the Hmong dispersed around the world after the Vietnam War, they never identified or agreed upon a “true” ethnic homeland. As a result, Hmong people have inevitably developed various other types of longing. The objects of these longings have been conceptually expanded to include a Hmong culture, a powerful leader, and a future time when Hmong will again be reunited.In this sense, I will examine the way Hmong people express their perspectives on their objects of longing in the absence of a “true”ethnic homeland by focusing on the viewpoints of some Hmong people residing in Laos.Based on my observations and analysis,I also propose to rethink the limitations of the dominant view about how Hmong imagine their ethnic homeland. Although current theoretical perspectives of transnationalism and “imagined community”have contributed to an understanding of the Hmong people’s imagination and their diasporic ethnic identity, those views cannot fully explain how Hmong people’s longing is not just associated with the lost homeland but can have multiple directions and meanings.These different types of longing expressed by the Hmong people suggest that diasporic communities can be maintained without a territorial ethnic homeland.

Title: Hmong Political Involvement in St. Paul, Minnesota and Fresno, California. Author: Yang Lor. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 53 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Over the past several years, Hmong in the United States have gained prominence for their increasing involvement in politics. Most of the attention has understandably focused on Fresno, California and St. Paul, Minnesota, home to the two largest Hmong populations in this country. While the Hmong communities in both cities are similar in size and have made significant political progress as evidenced by the election of Hmong candidates, the Hmong community in St. Paul has made greater inroads in the political realm.In addition to the elections of two Hmong candidates to the Minnesota State Legislature and two to the St. Paul School Board, the Hmong community in St. Paul has been able to engage local and state governments in Minnesota to address issues that affect the Hmong community. Through interviews, census data, and newspaper coverage of political campaigns, I show that Hmong in St. Paul have achieved greater representation in local and state governments and received greater support from government officials than Hmong in Fresno because Minnesota offers a social, economic, and political context that is favorable to fostering Hmong political involvement. Compared to Hmong in Fresno, Hmong in St. Paul have higher levels of socioeconomic resources and are more visible given their large size relative to other minority groups. They live in a region with consistently high levels of political participation and have political candidates who devote resources to mobilizing the Hmong community. Moreover, the Hmong vote has been critical to the success of Hmong candidates in St. Paul, an indication of the increasing political clout of the Hmong community there and a major reason why politicians in Minnesota are more willing to respond to issues that affect the Hmong community.Overall, this study highlights the importance of local and regional context in understanding the political incorporation of immigrants.

Title: Understanding Barriers to Prevention of ntshav qab zib/nsthaav qaab zib: A Hmong perspective. Authors: Miguel A. Perez and Chia Thao. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The need to decrease health disparities has been widely documented in the professional literature, therefore, it is not surprising that one of the two goals listed in Healthy People 2010 is the reduction of health disparities in ethnic and racial communities in the United States. The research literature, however, shows that the majority of efforts to decrease health disparities have focused on the major racial and ethnic groups in the United State and few if any efforts have focused on the healthcare needs, practices, beliefs, barriers, and other health aspects of the Hmong community.The purpose of this study is to record barriers to addressing diabetes in the Hmong community. Data were collected using Photovoice, a qualitative data collection method which enables participants to record in photo format the issues they experience. Findings from the study identified several barriers to diabetes prevention in the Hmong community. Participants indicate 1) the environment as a major key barrier, 2) personal choices, habits, and life style and, 3) lack of a safe environment to access physical activity as factors contributing to the potential for developing diabetes.

Title: Using Mammography Screening: Hmong Women’s Perceptions and Beliefs. Author: Pang Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 29 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths among all women in the United States. Although mammography screening has been shown to be effective in detecting breast cancer, Hmong women, one of the Asian American/Pacific Islander subgroups, have a very low screening rate. The purpose of this study was to explore factors that influence Hmong women‘s willingness to be screened for breast cancer. Grounded Theory methodology guided the analysis of fifteen qualitative interviews with Midwestern Hmong women between the ages of 40-64.Regardless of age, length of US residency, and language spoken, the results showed one core theme and three interrelated themes regarding the women‘s decision to seek mammography screening. The three interrelated themes of Breast Health Messages, Screening Barriers, and Screening Facilitators can have negative and/or positive influences on the core theme of mammography-screening decision-making processes. The first related theme of Breast Health Messages included professional and lay breast health messages. The second related theme, Screening Facilitators,included breast health messages from professionals, abnormal findings, social support, risk for getting breast cancer, doctor‘s recommendations, and insurance. The third related theme, Screening Barriers,identified symptomatic health seeking behavior,instrumental barriers, fear, social influence(which included lay breast health messages), use of traditional Hmong healing practices, embarrassment,and perception of breast cancer risk. This study suggested that the healthcare professionals need to use a culturally sensitive and multi-disciplinary approach to provide breast health education as well as to assess and provide instrumental support, while encouraging social support to influence Hmong women to attain mammography screening.

Title: Commentary: Challenges and Complexity in the Re-Construction of Hmong History. Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 17 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In the past 30 years various accounts of Hmong history have emerged from Hmong and non-Hmong scholars working in the United States, other Diaspora countries and Asia. This short commentary paper examines and addresses some of the questions that have arisen from the many versions of Hmong history in China being circulated among the Hmong of the United States.

Title: A Photo Essay of the Hmong Experience at Wat Thamkrabok in Thailand. Author: Pao Lor. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 41 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In this photo essay, I share photos and information I gathered from my two visits to the Hmong at Wat Thamkrabok in Thailand in 2004 and 2009. The July 2004 visit was a part of a Fulbright Hays Study Abroad Project, and the January 2009 visit was a part of a study abroad course I led to Thailand. The photos capture segments of Hmong life inside Wat Thamkrabok. These life segments include living conditions, education, employment opportunities,religion, technology,and others. In addition to the photos, I included narratives to provide contextual information and to enhance the substance and significance of the photos. The descriptive information shared in this photo essay came from several sources: the observations I made during the visits, the data and information about the Hmong in Wat Thamkrabok that were shared by the Thai Authorities Task Force 546, and conversations I had with several Hmong individuals I met inside Wat Thamkrabok. My purpose for this photo essay is twofold: one, to share what I saw and to report on the information that was shared with me during my two visits to the Hmong at Wat Thamkrabok, in an effort to capture an important segment of Hmong history and to advance the understanding of the Hmong experience and two, to use the photos to enhance the descriptive data about the Hmong experience in Wat Thamkrabok.

Title: Book Review of The Latehomecomer. Author: Lisa Dembouski. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This book review follows Kao Kalia Yang and her family from their beginnings in the jungles of Laos, their years in Thai refugee camps, and their eventual immigration to the United States. The Latehomecomer is an engaging, poignant memoir about a family’s experiences while searching for a place to call ―home. The reviewer offers questions, critique, and highlights from the story including glimpses into the history and culture of Hmong people.

Title: Escape from Harm’s Way: The Experiences of Southeast Asian Elders and their Families. Authors: Daniel F. Detzner, Aysem R. Senyurekli and Zha Blong Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 30 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study uses a life history approach to understand the lived experiences of 40 Southeast Asian elderly refugees who fled from their home countries and resettled in the United States in the late 1970’s and 1980’s. The focus is concentrated on the elders’ narratives of escape. Their experiences are consolidated into motivational elements leading to flight; six dichotomous dimensions of the leave taking; and complicating factors affecting the escape. The results indicate that escapes: (a) are motivated by a multiplicity of overlapping factors; (b) appear to have an impact on health after resettlement; and (c) are complex events where the same generational cohort fleeing from the same conflict, during the same time period, may arrive in the same destination with very different levels of distress. This study aims to develop a framework for understanding the escape narratives of elderly refugees as a way to understand the nature and sources of individual, family, and community distress that often hinders successful integration of refugee populations.

Title: Translating Research Findings Into a Hmong American Children’s Book to Promote Understanding of Persons with Alzheimer’s Disease. Author: Linda A. Gerdner. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Findings from an ethnographic study identified dementia (i.e., Alzheimer’s disease) as an important but often overlooked issue within the Hmong American community. Elders with dementia often lived in the home of a married son who had children of his own. Children were reported to have difficulty understanding the memory and behavioral changes associated with the progressive disease. This lack of understanding adversely affected the relationship between the child and elder. A bilingual illustrated children’s book entitled Grandfather’s Story Cloth has been developed to address this issue. General themes from the life experiences of family caregivers were used to provide a culturally meaningful storyline. The book introduces the idea of using a story cloth to stimulate Grandfather’s remote memory thereby enhancing communication and understanding between Grandson and Grandfather. The educational value of the book is augmented with discussion questions and answers that support a family based approach to learning. To promote access, the Extendicare Foundation provided funds for the purchase and distribution of 1000 copies of this book to select organizations that serve the Hmong-American community. Initial feedback regarding the educational value and cultural appropriateness of Grandfather’s Story Cloth by members of the Hmong American community, educators, elementary students, librarians, and health care professionals is presented.

Title: Hmong Parental Involvement and Support: A Comparison Between Families of High and Low Achieving High School Seniors. Authors: John Kha Lee and Katherine Green . Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong are some of the newest refugees who have settled in the United States with population estimates around 300,000. Unfortunately research has shown many Hmong children are not as successful in their education as their peers. Parental involvement in education has consistently been shown to impact academic success and attendance in higher education programs. Little is known about Hmong parental involvement in their children’s education process. Therefore, this study was done to compare and contrast the general family characteristics, parenting methods, parental involvement philosophies, parental involvement experiences, and parental education expectations in Hmong families of high school seniors classified as either high academic achievers or low achievers. Students were classified into either higher or lower academic achievement groups based on their high school cumulative GPA. Five students were randomly selected for each group and a qualitative research interview method was used to interview the students and both of their parents (n=30). The findings showed the parents of the higher academic achieving students were younger, had higher levels of education, and had better relationships and trust with the students. Parents from both groups did not have any written rules for their children to follow at home, they mainly became involved in their children’s education during the elementary and middle school years, and they did not have any specific preference of an educational level, career, or school for their children after high school. Recommendations for ways Hmong families can be encouraged to participate more in education are made.

Title: To Tell the Truth. Author: Jacques Lemoine. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 29 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper is inspired by the reading of Dr. Lee’s article in Hmong Studies Journal, Vol. 8: “Diaspora and the Predicament of Origins: Interrogating Hmong Postcolonial History and Identity” and my recent, albeit too short visit to Minnesota in order to receive my Eagle Award in Hmong Studies and participate in the Center for Hmong Studies’ Conference: “Cultivating the Past, Interpreting the Present, and Enriching the Future”, at Concordia University, Saint Paul (April 12, 2008). There I met three fascinating Miao scholars from China.1 There was some confrontation in our respective approach to (H)mong2 studies from opposite viewpoints: their, the Miao imagined nation, mine, the (H)mong transnational ethnic group. Once more, I have the feeling that it is the duty of a scholar of my generation to see that (H)mong studies avoid the political and scholastic fantasies of the time, and keep progressing in the only right direction: scientific knowledge. I deal here with three issues: a) the recent development of (H)mong studies in China, b) the content and meaning of a so-called “Hmong/Miao transnationality”, c) the faithfulness to (H)mong culture.

Title: Qha Ke (Guiding the Way) From the Hmong Ntsu of China, 1943. Author: Nicholas Tapp. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article provides the text of Ruey Yih-Fu's 1943 collected version of the Qhuab Ke, or Song of Opening the Way, sung at a Hmong funeral in China. An English translation is provided based on the Hmong and Chinese translations given by Ruey, together with extensive notes and details about the Song. Ruey's own IPA-based transliteration is mainly kept, with some modifications in view of RPA. It appears to be one of the earliest and most original versions of the Qhuab Ke we have

Title: The Power of the Spoken Word in Defining Religion and Thought: A Case Study. Author: Hilary Watt. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 25 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This essay explores the relationship between religion and language through a literature review of animist scholarship and, in particular, a case study of the animist worldview of Hmong immigrants to the United States. An analysis of the existing literature reveals how the Hmong worldview (which has remained remarkably intact despite widely dispersed settlements) both informs and is informed by the Hmong language. Hmong is contrasted with English with regard to both languages’ respective affinities to the scientific worldview and Christianity. I conclude that Hmong and other "pre-scientific" languages have fundamental incompatibilities with the Western worldview (which both informs and is informed by dualistic linguistic conventions of modern language, a modern notion of scientific causality, and Judeo-Christian notions of the body/soul dichotomy). This incompatibility proves to be a major stumbling block for Western scholars of animist religion, who bring their own linguistic and cultural biases to their scholarship.

Title: A Critique of Timothy Vang’s Hmong Religious Conversion and Resistance Study. Authors: Nao Xiong and Yang Sao Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: We review Timothy Vang’s dissertation on the growth and decline of the Hmong Christian church. We argue that Vang’s arguments are methodologically and theoretically flawed. Furthermore, we try to show that his dissertation is not so much an objective analysis of Hmong religious adaptation, but rather an attempt to define and subjugate certain Hmong cultural and religious beliefs and practices as backward and inferior to Christianity. We suggest that it is these kinds of problematic arguments, often couched in academic language, that further perpetuate misinterpretations and misrepresentations about “culture” and “religion” in Hmong American communities.

Title: Adolescents’ Problem Behaviors and Parent-Adolescent Conflicts in Hmong Immigrant Families. Authors: Zha Blong Xiong, Arunya Tuicomepee and Kathyrn B. Rettig. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to investigate whether Hmong adolescent problem behaviors and school difficulties influence parent-adolescent conflicts above and beyond the variables of adolescents’ embarrassment about their parents, the acculturation gap between parents and adolescents, and age of adolescents. The sample included 209 Hmong adolescents living in Minnesota. There were 123 males and 86 females, ages 12 to 25 years. A survey was administered in several community agencies to adolescents that included their perspectives on the frequency and intensity of parent-adolescent disagreements on 28 issues and the problem behaviors of delinquent peer affiliation, gang involvement, truancy, and school performance. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated the set of problem-behavior independent variables explained 26% of the variance in the frequency-intensity of father-adolescent conflicts and 21% of the variance in the frequency-intensity of mother-adolescent conflicts. Ideas for parent education in the Hmong community are discussed.

Title: A Visit to the Hmong of Asia: Globalization and Ethnicity at the Dawn of the 21st Century. Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 50 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper consists of observations made from my two and a half month visit to the Hmong in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and China. As such, it contains two parts. The first part is my observation of the Hmong in Asia and their common issues. The second part is a photo essay of the visit to the Hmong in Asia, covering issues discussed in the paper. Although I did visit other subgroups of the Miao, such as the Hmu in Guizhou and Qo Xiong in Hunan, this paper covers only the Hmong, whom I hope will be better presented and discussed as a result of my work. Moreover, the Hmong live in all the above mentioned countries, whereas other sub-groups of the Miao live only in China. This paper highlights the socio-economic conditions and educational experiences of the Hmong in the above mentioned countries. It also covers my observations of Hmong civic engagement and other aspects of their social and political lives in the respective countries.

Title: A Visit to the Hmong of Asia: Globalization and Ethnicity at the Dawn of the 21st Century (Photo Essay). Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Title: Political Behavior and Candidate Emergence in the Hmong-American Community. Author: Steven Doherty. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 35 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This research focuses on the major social, cultural and political factors that have shaped Hmong-American political behavior in the United States and also more specifically on the issue of Hmong-American candidates who have run for electoral office. Electoral turnout and the partisan direction of Hmong-American voters will receive some general examination. Special attention is also given to the unusually rapid emergence of candidates for electoral office from the Hmong-American community in the Upper Midwest, and the specific motivations and strategies of Hmong-American electoral candidates.

Title: Diaspora and the Predicament of Origins: Interrogating Hmong Postcolonial History and Identity. Author: Gary Yia Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper examines two basic issues that have been of major concern to the Hmong in the diaspora: (1). What is their historical and geographic origin; and (2) are the Hmong part of the Miao nationality in China, and should they accept being known under this generic name? There have been many theories about where the Hmong originally came from, ranging from Mesopotamia in the Middle East during Biblical times, the North Pole, Siberia, to Mongolia and China. This paper consolidates these many propositions with their supporting evidence, and draws its own surprising conclusion as to the real location of the original homeland of the Hmong. Depending on what they regard as their origin and which history they wish to be aligned with, the Hmong may have to reconsider being known as Miao or Meo, a name which most have vehemently rejected because of its derogatory connotation, especially among the more politically conscious Hmong now living in Western countries.

Title: The self-rated social well-being of Hmong college students in Northern California. Author: Serge C. Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 19 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper discusses the self-rated social well-being of a small sample of Hmong college students in Northern California. Social well-being is defined as the state of social and cultural adaptive functioning, and includes such concepts as feeling prosperous, being healthy, and being happy. Fifty Hmong college students between the ages of 18 to 30 who either left Southeast Asia as children or were born in the United States participated in the study. Overall, 41% said that the future looks bright for them and 72% said that their living standard would be better off five years from now.

Title: Constructing a Social Problem: Suicide, Acculturation and the Hmong. Authors: Machiline Xiong and Paul Jesilow. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 43 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Between September 1998 and May 2001, eight Hmong teenagers took their own lives in one urban community. Newspaper accounts attempted to establish the suicides as an outgrowth of problems brought about by the Hmong immigration to the United States. In particular, the clash between the Hmong and American cultures was fingered as the cause of the suicides. Other explanations were ignored. The teenage Hmong suicides were depicted as a problem that needed addressing and identified the school district and mental health facilities as the appropriate institutions to deal with the problem. In-depth interviews were conducted with individuals either directly familiar with the events or positioned to provide the best information and overview on the issue. We conclude that the emphasis for the suicides was strongly associated with the Hmong’s status as immigrants in order to convince the Hmong that they needed to acculturate, in particular to accept and utilize mental health facilities. We illustrate that suicide can be a point of opportunity for those seeking to increase a group’s level of attachment to society.

Title: The Transition of Wat Tham Krabok Hmong Children to Saint Paul Public Schools: Perspectives of Teachers, Principals, and Hmong Parents. Authors: Bic Ngo, Martha Bigelow and Kyla Wahlstrom. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 35 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In 2004, with the closing of the last Hmong refugee camp, Wat Tham Krabok, the latest group of Hmong refugees resettled to the US. To facilitate the language transition of approximately 1,000 school-aged newcomer Hmong children, the Saint Paul Public Schools, developed and established Transitional Language Centers. In this article, we examine the experiences and perspectives of principals, teachers and educational assistants who worked with newcomer Hmong children in the newly-established Transitional Language Centers and well-established Language Academy programs. We also elucidate the experiences of Hmong parents with the schools that served their children. Our research offers insights into the important work of the Transitional Language Centers as well as the need to better support newcomer Hmong parents.

Title: Diabetes Knowledge, Beliefs, and Treatments in the Hmong Population: An Exploratory Study. Authors: Miguel A. Perez and Koua Cha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Diabetes mellitus, a chronic health condition, affecting over 18 million Americans has been found to disproportionally affect members of minority groups. To-date, limited research has been conducted to understand the etiology of the disease in the Hmong community many of whom migrated to the United States from Southeast Asia. The purpose of this study was to investigate knowledge, beliefs, and treatment of diabetes in the Hmong community in Fresno County. Thirty-three participants between the age of 18 and 65 participated in this survey which included qualitative and quantitative questions. Findings from this survey revealed that the majority of study participants had no knowledge of the disease. Results from the survey also revealed misconceptions about the disease (e.g., believing a person can catch the disease by eating too many sweet foods). The study also revealed that the majority of study participants utilize traditional Hmong remedies such as herbs, including plants and tree roots for diabetes treatments.

Title: Preliminary Study on Thalassemia Screening and Genetic Counseling in Selective Hmong People in Saraburi Province, Thailand. Authors: Pa Vang, Onuma Zongrum, Ratana Sindhuphak and Nikorn Dusitsin Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 19 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Preliminary Study on Thalassemia Screening and Genetic Counseling in Selective Hmong People in Saraburi Province, Thailand by Pa Vang, RN, RCS, BSN., Onuma Zongrum, M.Sc., Ratana Sindhuphak, PhD., and Nikorn Dusitsin, MD., Hmong Studies Journal 8: 1-19. 2ABSTRACT Thalassemia is a gene-linked disease that can cause serious health problems because it can lead to the destruction of red blood cells. Studies have shown that there is a high prevalence of thalassemia in Southeast Asia. The Institute of Health Research, Chulalongkorn University developed a successful “Module” to screen for thalassemia in the Thai population, however, it has not been implemented in the minority population in Thailand. In this study, we investigated the feasibility of the newly developed educational and thalassemia screening program with the Hmong population. The primary aim of this study was to test this program. The secondary aim was to determine the prevalence of thalassemia in the Hmong and provide education. A third aim was to determine the reliability of two different screening methods in the Hmong population. A pre-test and post-test design was used; participants (N=12) were individuals residing in Thailand with the ability to read English and between the ages 18-50. The participants met twice with the researchers to complete the program. The first contact consisted of assessing participants’ knowledge about thalassemia, providing thalassemia information and education about genetic counseling, and drawing blood samples. The second contact consisted of assessing knowledge, providing a written report of individual blood sample results and counseling. The initial interview revealed that the majority of the participants (82%) did not know anything about thalassemia prior to participation. The program was easy to understand by most participants (90%). Of the eleven Hmong participants, two tested positive for being a possible carrier for thalassemia. In order to reduce the prevalence of thalassemia, it is necessary to engage in risk reduction health services. The modified screening method proved to be as effective as the standard method. Therefore, the program can expand and be used in other regional populations with low cost.

Title: An Assessment of the Hmong American New Year and Its Implications for Hmong-American Culture. Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 32 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This author attended the first day of the 2005-06 Hmong New Year in Fresno, which was held during the week of December 26 to 31, 2005; and found it to be strongly influenced by commercial, political and informational/educational activities. This was the 30th annual Hmong New Year event celebrated in the United States and it appears to have developed itself into a unique Hmong American festival. It included many elements and traditions from the pre-1975 New Year of the Hmong of Laos. This includes the youth displaying their Hmong traditional costumes, the ball tossing, and the singing of traditional Hmong songs. On the other hand, this New Year event was also dominated by commercial, entertainment, political and informational/educational activities that appeared to be influenced by the American and Western concepts of the market economy, technology and freedom of expression. The Hmong New Yyear in the United States has become a festival that embraces two cultures, nurtured by the Hmong Diaspora and the long-time Hmong strengths of adaptability and flexibility.

Title: Financial Management in Hmong Immigrant Families: Change and Adaptation. Authors: Pa Nhia D. Yang and Catherine A. Solheim. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study examined family financial management in the Hmong community through the analysis of 11 in-depth interviews with Hmong professionals who worked in the area of finance. The findings revealed that as the Hmong made the transition from an agricultural economy in Laos to the complex economic system in the United States, they have learned to adapt to their environment. First generation immigrants continue to live fairly simple lifestyles and have maintained their strong value of saving money. The 1.5 generation integrates the Hmong value of saving with their knowledge about the U.S. financial system, resulting in savvy financial investments. The 2nd generation, born and raised in the U.S., has been primarily influenced by the U.S. consumer culture, resulting in perceiving wants as needs. Thus spending is a higher priority than saving.

Title: 'Die Another Day': A qualitative analysis of Hmong experiences with kidney stones. Authors: Kathleen A. Culhane-Pera and Mayseng Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Background: A chart review at a urological office revealed that Hmong patients present with higher rates of kidney stones, uric acid stones, and complications from kidney stones than non-Hmong patients. In order to ultimately redress this health disparity, a conference of Hmong and non-Hmong health care providers decided that we needed to first understand the pertinent social, cultural, economic, and biological factors contributing to the disparity. This research project sought to elicit Hmong patients and family members’ explanatory models, decision-making processes, and experiences with the health care system. Methods: We conducted in–depth interviews with 10 Hmong kidney stone patients, 11 family members of 9 patients, and 4 traditional healers. All 10 patients had received urological interventions, including ureteroscopy (8), percutaneous lithotomy (5) and nephrectomy (2). Some patients had postponed medical assistance (6) and had refused procedures (4). We qualitatively analyzed the transcribed and translated interviews with an Excel spread sheet and N6 computer software. Results were discussed with patients and a community advisory council. Results: Hmong concepts of kidney function and explanatory models of kidney stones are a blend of traditional and biomedical concepts. Kidney stones are understood as acute health problems caused by hard substances in water and food that stick to the kidney, which weak kidneys cannot excrete. Kidney stone sufferers do not know they have stones until they pass a stone or they see stones on X-rays, as pain or hematuria are non-specific symptoms. They prefer medications, including herbal medicines, to invasive urological procedures. In making decisions about urological interventions, Hmong patients balance fear of disease (pain and renal failure) with fear of doctors (complications from interventions and anesthesia). While patients have variable balance points to accept interventions, the basic philosophy of “die another day” captures people’s preference to act today so as to postpone “death” ---whether by disease or procedure – until tomorrow. Conclusions: These findings identify Hmong patients and family’s experiences with this health disparity. This information could be used to increase the Hmong community and patients’ knowledge of the disease and decrease their fear of urological interventions. Urologists, primary care providers and community health educators could educate the Hmong community and patients about the recurrent and nearly asymptomatic but potentially life-threatening nature of kidney stones, and encourage early diagnosis of renal stones. health care workers should make institutional changes that could increase trusting relationships and decrease patients’ fears of providers and procedures.

Title: Learning from the experiences of Hmong mental health providers. Author: Linda Gensheimer. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article is a condensed version of a doctoral dissertation studying Hmong mental health providers. The central research question for this study was: What is the meaning of being a Hmong mental health provider? 11 Hmong mental health providers were interviewed about their experiences. Interviewees were asked to describe specific experiences while doing this work. Interviews were audio taped and transcribed into text narratives. The methodology for conducting this research and analyzing the text was derived from the field of hermeneutic phenomenology. Five major themes emerged: (a) The clash; (b) I call him uncle; (c) Deciphering the code through Hmong embeddedness; (d) Tshuaj vwm (crazy drugs); and (e) In my heart I can see that it happened that way. Practical implications for educators and those working in the field of mental health are presented.

Title: Coming Home? The Integration of Hmong Refugees from Wat Tham Krabok, Thailand into American Society. Author: .Grit Grigoleit. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In December 2003, the U.S. State Department officially announced the acceptance of roughly 15,000 Hmong refugees from Wat Tham Krabok, Thailand, into the United States of America. The Hmong refugees were scheduled to be resettled for family reunification in established Hmong communities. As social science research on migration indicates, the existence of ethnic communities is crucial for a successful adaptation to a host society for newcomers. Ethnic communities thereby serve as a buffer zone and provide initial assistance, which is especially important when governmental integration measures are not sufficient. In the case of the Hmong refugee resettlement, the U.S. economic and social incorporation efforts were inefficient, due to cutbacks in U.S. Federal funding and welfare reforms, causing a greater reliance on the receiving Hmong communities. This raises a number of questions about how much an ethnic community can absorb and is able to bear in order to fulfill the newcomers’ needs. What are the limits and how does this affect the initial integration of the newcomers?

Title: "‘Why Would We Want Those Students Here?": Bridges and Barriers to Building Campus Community Partnerships". Authors: Vincent K. Her and Mary Louise Buley-Meissner. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 43 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong American Studies Initiative (HASI) at our Midwestern university had the promise and potential to become one of the first comprehensive Hmong American, community-supported academic programs in the U.S. Through four years of work to start and develop this program (2002-2006), we have learned many lessons regarding bridges and barriers to building campus-community partnerships. Here we highlight the benefits of HASI and the underlying politics that, in our view, have determined funding decisions and influenced campus-community relations. Included in this discussion are insights gained from dozens of meetings with Hmong American community leaders and students, university faculty and administrators, as well as personal interviews and group planning sessions. Drawing on our experiences during this multi-year project, we will share what we have done, what we have learned and where we are now. In the process, we would like to raise a timely question: Is it possible to build an academic program that seriously, substantively takes into account the values and perspectives of an ethnic community?

Title: Dreaming Across the Oceans: Globalization and Cultural Reinvention in the Hmong Diaspora. Author:Gary Y. Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong in Laos did not have any commercially produced media until after 1975 when 200,000 of them became refugees and were resettled in Western countries. Since then, they have produced many Hmong music cassettes, video documentaries and movies in America, Laos and Thailand for the eager consumption of the older members of the Hmong diaspora. These modern songs and videos often allude to aspects of Hmong life and culture in Asia which are missing in the new life in the West. This emphasis on "images' and texts from the past arises from a deep nostalgia for the homeland, the trauma of war and their relatively recent forced departure, guilt over those left behind, access to capital and modern media technology, and more importantly a world-wide market. It is argued that these moving video images and new singing voices constitute a form of cultural reinvention that connects the Hmong together as a global community, and brings them a new changing identity, a new level of transnational group consciousness both in the diaspora and in the homeland.

Title: The Texas Two-Step, Hmong Style: A Delicate Dance Between Culture and Ethnicity. Author: Faith Nibbs. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Over the last thirty years since relocation, individual Hmong refugee communities in America have evolved with varying needs and outcomes adding to their complexity and diversity in the United States. There is a noted lack of research that examines these factors calling for further study to help understand the role of locality in the adjustment and diversity of refugees. This research begins a discussion on the unique Hmong adaptation in Texas. Unique and sometimes contradictory local factors deriving from the socio-political environment of Texas have helped to shape a relatively small, but distinctively cosmopolitan community. This paper argues that Texan economic, environmental, and political differences have forged uncharacteristic understandings and challenge conventional conceptions of what it means to be Hmong.

Title: Food Preparation, Practices, and Safety In The Hmong Community. Authors: Miguel A. Pérez, Long Julah Moua, and Helda Pinzon-Perez.. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Foodborne illnesses are syndromes that are acquired as a result of eating foods that contain sufficient quantities of poisonous substances or pathogens. Cultural practices place the Hmong at an increased risk for food borne illnesses resulting from improper food handling, preparation, and storage. The risk for illness is further complicated by the fact that the Hmong have very limited knowledge about food-borne disease and they find themselves in a situation in which they cannot control the space in the house available for food preparation. Data for this qualitative study were collected from 25 Hmong individuals aged 18 and over residing in Fresno, California. Participants in this study did not appear to understand the direct relationship between bacteria and food borne illnesses. Similarly, study participants were more likely to report reliance on traditional medicine to address foodborne illnesses. Results from this study indicate a need to reach the Hmong community with culturally appropriate messages relating to food preparation and practice. Messages must acknowledge the role of food in cultural celebrations, while seeking to decrease the risk for foodborne illnesses.

Title: Knowledge of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Among Hmong Populations In Central California. Authors: Teng Vang and Helda Pinzon-Perez.. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The prevalence of nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) is high and the incidence is increasing among the Hmong community. To date, there have been few studies on NPC and other cancers in the Hmong population. The purpose of this study was to measure the knowledge of a rural Hmong community in California in regards to nasopharyngeal cancer. A questionnaire that evaluated knowledge of nasopharyngeal cancer was developed and given to 145 Hmong participants. The participants’ knowledge varied with age and educational level but not with gender. Middle-aged generations had the highest level of knowledge on nasopharyngeal cancer. In contrast, low knowledge of NPC was revealed in the older generations. Participants with no school were the least knowledgeable about nasopharyngeal cancer. Those participants with the highest formal education were most knowledgeable about the disease. Hmong males and females are both knowledgeable of nasopharyngeal cancer. This study provides insights for public health practitioners regarding culturally-sensitive strategies to control the increase of NPC in Hmong populations.

Title: Developing Culturally Sensitive Parent Education Programs for Immigrant Families: The Helping Youth Succeed Curriculum. Authors: Zha Blong Xiong, Daniel F. Detzner, Zoe Hendrickson Keuster, Patricia A. Eliason, and Rose Allen. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper describes the process by which the Helping Youth Succeed (HYS) curriculum was developed for Cambodian, Hmong, Lao, and Vietnamese immigrants in the United States to help address and minimize conflicts between immigrant parents and their adolescent children. A detailed explanation of this model is provided to encourage the development of additional culturally specific parent education curricula for other immigrant/refugee groups and/or diverse populations.

Title: The Meeting with Guanyin, the Goddess of Mercy: A Case Study of Syncretism in the Hmong System of Beliefs Author: Kao-Ly Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 42 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The purpose of this case study is to shed light on the identity of the spirit of fertility called Lady Kaying –Niam Nkauj Kab Yeeb—, its religious origin and the general processes of borrowing her from other cultures within the Hmong culture. Hmong popular beliefs pertaining to Kaying reveal that Kaying is in fact the Chinese Goddess of Mercy Guanyin. She was imported from Mahayana Buddhism by the Hmong people of China who had retained her roles of the “Bestower of Children", the “Guardian Angel” or the "Conductor of the Dead Children". An analysis of the process of borrowing of the Chinese deity into the Hmong pantheon shows that Lady Kaying overlaps with an ancient spirit, the “Ancestor Spirit of Fertility” or Niam Poj Dab Pog. This case study demonstrates that the processes of borrowing are selective, integrative and comprehensive: some traits or fragments were taken from Buddhism and incorporated into the Hmong beliefs through a superimposing of a Hmong pre-existing system of beliefs.

Title: From a Refugee Camp to the Minnesota State Senate: A Case Study of a Hmong American Woman’s Challenge. Author: Taeko Yoshikawa. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper explores the contested nature of Hmong women’s traditional roles and the recent emergence of Hmong American women leaders by discussing Senator Mee Moua, who was elected to the Minnesota State Legislature in January 2002. She became the first Hmong American state legislator in the United States.1 The family and kinship system are the backbone of the Hmong community, around which Hmong culture is organized. The Hmong recognize kinship through the male line, and the household is the basic economic unit in the patriarchal Hmong social system.2 This study was intended to find out how Mee Moua perceives her identity in working with her constituents and the Hmong people in her community, why the patriarchal Hmong community in St. Paul supported Mee Moua’s campaign, and how she earned the broad support of a diverse constituency in defeating a candidate that had been handpicked by St. Paul’s mayor. I argue that ethnic identity and the presentation of individuality as “Mee Moua” combined to make this Hmong American woman a successful bridge between two distinctive cultures

Title: Who is Hmong? Questions and Evidence from the U.S. Census. Authors: Wayne Carroll and Victoria Udalova. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper explores the boundaries of the Hmong community as measured by different categories in 2000 U.S. census data. Following careful assessment of detailed Census data, the authors conclude that the usual criterion used to identify a person in the data as Hmong is too narrow, and that a broader, more inclusive definition more accurately delineates the Hmong ethnic group. The authors propose that anyone who reported in the Census that his or her race, ancestry, or language was Hmong should be included in the Hmong community. This more inclusive method provides evidence that the Hmong population enumerated by the 2000 U.S. census was about 18% larger than the figure that is usually reported.

Title: Hmong and Lao Refugee Women: Reflections of a Hmong-American Woman Anthropologist. Author: Dia Cha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 35 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In 1992, Ms. Dia Cha – then a graduate student in anthropology at Northern Arizona University – traveled to Chieng Kham Refugee and Napho Repatriation Camps in Thailand, and the village of Ban KM 52, in Vientiane Province, Laos, to research issues concerning the repatriation to Laos of Lao Lum and Hmong women refugees. This article, originally written upon the return from these travels and in partial fulfillment of the requirements for her Master of Arts degree in Applied Anthropology, considers the findings made and the insights achieved on this journey of discovery. In particular, the work discusses changes and continuity in the lives of Lao Lum and Hmong refugee women in the camps. Also addressed in considerable detail is the impact of the author’s status as an educated Hmong-American woman and former refugee on her interactions with female and male informants residing in the two refugee camps. Ms. Cha, who spent much of her early life in such refugee camps as are herein described, has, in the intervening period, become Dr. Dia Cha, Associate Professor of Anthropology and Ethnic Studies at St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, Minnesota, USA. The research project she describes was funded by the United Nations Development Fund for Women and executed by the American Friends Service Committee (The Quaker Services). Ms. Jacquelyn Chagnon joined Ms. Cha during the second phrase of the research, in Napho Repatriation Center, and later in Laos; however, the following article, produced originally in 1992, was written solely by Ms. Cha.

Title: Hmong Resettlement in French Guiana. Author: Patrick F. Clarkin. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Within the Hmong refugee diaspora, the Hmong of French Guiana are fairly unique in that many have achieved economic autonomy through market farming while also residing in rural, ethnically homogeneous villages that help to preserve cultural and linguistic traditions. This article explores some observations made over a three-month period in 2001 in French Guiana regarding the adjustment of Hmong villagers since first being resettled in 1977. Results from formal questionnaires conducted with local villagers (n = 180) revealed that more Hmong in French Guiana had lower rates of high blood pressure, were more satisfied with where they lived, and had less desire to return to Laos compared to a sample of Hmong in the United States (n = 108).

Title: The Myth of Sonom, the Hmong King. Author: Robert Entenmann. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper discusses the inaccurate designation of Sonom, an important figure in 18th century Chinese history as a "Hmong king." The myth of Sonom as a Hmong historical figure has gained currency through its inclusion in several widely read written works related to Hmong-Americans published over the past decade. The article clarifies the actual historical identity of Sonom and the likely route by which he became misidentified by some writers as being of Hmong origin.

Title: Hmong Cosmology: Proposed Model, Preliminary Insights. Author: Vincent K. Her. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 25 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Is there an underlying structure to Hmong cosmology? What are its components? And how might these interrelate? In this paper, I will show that the Hmong cosmos consists of three separate realms and that these are connected together by the cycle of the human soul. Using zaaj qhuabke, I will trace the journey of the deceased and look at how ritual movement is expressive of human agency, narrative experience and community history. My insights are based on primary fieldwork research carried out for a doctoral dissertation on Hmong funeral rites in the Midwest.

Title: The Shaping of Traditions: Agriculture and Hmong Society. Author: Gary Yia Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article argues that throughout Hmong history, Hmong agriculture and the associated economic system have been determining forces affecting and giving rise to many social customs and religious beliefs. The paper provides numerous historical and contemporary examples of how Hmong agriculture practices in Asia have shaped important aspects of Hmong culture and religious beliefs.

Title: What is the actual number of the (H)mong in the World. Author: Jacques Lemoine. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 8 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper synthesizes the state of knowledge about the size of the (H)mong population in various regions of the world. Particular attention is paid to clarifying what is known about the number of (H)mong as opposed to Miao in China, an issue which has been associated with considerable confusion. The author concludes by deriving hypothetical estimates of the actual number of (H)mong throughout the world based upon available information.

Title: Hmong Refugee’s Death Fugue. Author: Sheng-mei Ma. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The author of this literary analysis pieces together accounts from oral histories, academic literature, popular works and Hmong storycloths to describe the “death fugue” associated with the early narratives of the Hmong refugee experience in Southeast Asia and the United States.

Title: Continuing the promise: Recruiting and preparing Hmong-American educators for Central Wisconsin.
Authors: Leslie McClain-Ruelle and Kao Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article presents consideration of the central factors affecting recruitment, retention and preparation of Hmong pre-service teachers in Central Wisconsin. The article includes a brief historical examination of the immigration of the Hmong population into the United States, a consideration of the Hmong culture as it affects recruitment and retention of pre-service teachers and evidence related to successes and struggles experienced by Project Forward students in the teacher preparation programs at the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point.

Title: Southeast Asian Fathers’ Experiences with Adolescents: Challenges and Change. Authors: Zha Blong Xiong and Daniel F. Detzner. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine the fathering experiences of Southeast Asian immigrant men who are parenting their adolescent children in the United States. Focus group discussions were conducted with twenty-two Cambodian, Hmong, Lao, and Vietnamese immigrant fathers. The study found that most fathers wanted to become closer to their children and be more involved in their children’s daily activities. Common fathering roles such as the family provider, teacher, supervisor, and disciplinarian also emerged from the analyses. Parent educators, social service providers, policy makers, and practitioners who work with Southeast Asian families should understand the complex and critical roles of fathers and include them when designing, developing, and delivering programs and services for families.

Title: Research Notes from the Field: Tracing the Path of the Ancestors – A Visit to the Hmong in China by Kou Yang. Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 38 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper consists of personal research notes collected by a Hmong-American scholar during a 2004 visit to Miao communities in China. The author provides his personal observations related to conditions in Miao villages and cultural and social exchanges between Hmong-Americans and Miao. A short related discussion is provided of what is known of Miao history and the status of Miao in contemporary China. The author supplements his informal observations with photos taken during the visit.

Title: Medical, Racist, and Colonial Constructions of Power: Creating the Asian American Patient and the Cultural Citizen in Anne Fadiman's The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. Author: Monica Chiu. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004. Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This essay looks at the values attributed or denied to "culture" (medical culture, history, Southeast Asian refugees, Asian American cultural citizenship) in the care surrounding a Hmong child diagnosed with spirit loss, according to Hmong interpretation, or epilepsy, as defined by Western medicine. In my reading of Anne Fadiman's The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down:A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures, medical, colonial, and authorial knowledge often converge in devastating ways, linking the seemingly disparate discourses of war, refugee medicine, and the model minority through colonial representations. I also look at the book's lacuna in its investigation of cultural collisions, finding that its approaches to reporting the medical-cultural conflict from a seemingly neutral position-one balancing the reported views of the epileptic child's parents and the views of her medical practitioners often reinscribe the Hmong subjects into the very colonial parameters from which the book attempts to extract them.

Title: Hmong Transnational Identity: the Gendering of Contested Discourses. Author: Roberta Julian. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004. Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Hmong women throughout the diaspora are increasingly expressing ‘what it means to be Hmong’ and ‘what it means to be a Hmong woman’ in a variety of media that constitute western popular culture. At the same time, Hmong women residing in different nation-states live Hmong femininity differently. This paper explores the contested nature of Hmong identity through an exploration of discourses and practices at global and local levels, with a particular emphasis on their gendered dimensions. The paper argues that global narratives of Hmong identity are analytically distinct from, but empirically intertwined with, the constructions of Hmong identities across transnational social spaces. Through a focus on Hmong in Australia and the United States, the paper highlights the significance of place, generation, gender, religion,class and status as axes of contestation and debate in the construction of Hmong identities.

Title: Caught Between Cultures: Hmong Parents in America's Sibling Society. Author: Tamara L. Kaiser. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004. Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Based on a qualitative study of the Hmong Community in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, this paper addresses the conflict between the traditionally hierarchical and patriarchal Hmong culture and those aspects of American culture that elevate freedom and equality over,not only patriarchy, but over hierarchy in general. Although this conflict has forced the Hmong community to change in some positive ways, it also creates great challenges for parents and their children. Distorted values of “freedom” and “equality,” promoted by much of American culture, compromise the ability of many Hmong to be effective parents. A comparison of traditional Hmong parenting with what author Robert Bly calls America’s “sibling society” demonstrates that both Hmong and mainstream families and society are hurt by a general rejection of authority and would greatly benefit from recognizing the value of hierarchy based on experience, genuine accomplishment and wisdom .

Title: Hmong-American K-12 Students and the Academic Skills Needed for a College Education: A Review of the Existing Literature and Suggestions for Future Research. Author: Christopher T. Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004. Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This research literature review article examines the factors that affect academic success or failure of Hmong-American K-12 students to provide some insights into the academic challenges and complexity they still face today in the American educational system. Existing studies indicate that many Hmong-American students are academically underprepared for postsecondary studies since they are lagging in the academic skills needed for success. Academic and cultural background issues are discussed to help differentiate successful students from less successful students.

Title: Hmong Parents' Perceptions on Instructional Strategies for Educating their Children with Disabilities. Author: Halee Vang and Manuel T. Barrera. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004. Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article reports how Hmong parents were involved in an educational research study to examine their views on a structured reading instruction protocol developed in English and then translated into Hmong for Hmong children identified with disabilities. Six Hmong female parents were interviewed using a semi-structured interview. The responses from the interviews revealed that Hmong parents of disabled children are not only very concerned about seeking education equity, but that they need more communication and knowledge about their children’s education.The research methodology revealed a process to engage Hmong parents in discussing their perceptions about schools and their relationships with schools as well as classroom instruction.

Title: Southeast Asian Adolescents' Perceptions of Immigrant Parenting Practices. Authors: Zha Blong Xiong, Daniel F. Detzner and Michael J. Cleveland. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004. Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In their countries of origin, immigrant youth are unlikely to question the age-old child-rearing practices of their elders;however, the parenting of adolescents in an adopted country can become a major source of family conflict.The purpose of this study is to investigate how Southeast Asian adolescents growing up in the United States perceive their parents’ practices in six areas of parenting responsibility identified by the National Extension Parent Education Model: caring for self, understanding, guiding, nurturing, motivating, and advocating. Four focus groups were conducted with 37 Southeast Asian (Cambodian, Hmong, Lao, and Vietnamese) adolescent boys and girls between the ages of 14 to19 years to ascertain how they perceived parenting behaviors. An analytic induction procedure was used to analyze transcripts from in-depth focus group discussions. Results indicate wide divergence between the idealized practices of the model, the parents’ actual practices, and adolescents’ perceptions of parenting practices. The study has important implications for the growing number of immigrant families from diverse cultures who are parenting adolescents in unfamiliar cultural contexts and for the educators,human service providers, and others who work with them.

Title: The Hmong 'Dab Pog Couple' Story and its Significance in Arriving at an Understanding of Hmong Ritual. Author: Dia Cha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2003. Additional Source Information: Volume 4. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The presentation that follows will discuss the "Dab Pog Couple" story as it bears upon the origins of Hmong cultural tradition and embedded social values. Such a consideration will, at the same time, serve to introduce and elucidate many of the meanings behind, and values attached to, Hmong rituals in general and will thus provide a contribution to the understanding of these rituals and their relation to Dab Neeg (Folk Legends) within the Hmong cultural studies scholarly literature.

Title: Migration of Hmong to Rochester, Minnesota: Life in the Midwest. Author: Cathleen Jo Faruque. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2003. Additional Source Information: Volume 4. Pagination: 50 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This study was designed to investigate one of the newest refugee groups to the Midwestern United States, the Hmong refugees from Laos, China, Vietnam and Thailand. This study broadly examines how multigenerational Hmong families are adjusting and adapting to life in Rochester, Minnesota. The following questions guided this study: (1) What effect does non-voluntary migration have on the acculturation levels as measured by cultural awareness and ethnic loyalty of the Hmong in Rochester, Minnesota? (2) How do the Hmong perceive their host Anglo culture? (3) How do the Hmong adjust to their host social system in the United States? (4) How much do Hmong learn about their new environment? (5) How do the Hmong retain traditions within in the United States?

Title: Contradictions in Learning how to be Thai: A Case Study of a Young Hmong Woman. Author: Tracy Pilar Johnson-Messenger. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2003. Additional Source Information: Volume 4. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper comes from a three month period of fieldwork that I conducted in a green Hmong village in northern Thailand during the summer of 1998. During that time a crisis erupted between a local Thai government organization and the families of “Muban”1 in which one of my main informants, Ga, a 20 year old Hmong kindergarten teacher, played a major role. Although the conflict remained unresolved at the time I left Thailand, I believe that an analysis of the events, along with an analysis of Ga's role in the crisis, will illustrate the way in which education contributes to the production of new identities which social actors draw on to interpret ambiguous and contradictory social situations. I am not suggesting that Ga's project can ultimately be considered successful in effectively accomplishing such a transformation, but what I do believe her experience shows is the ways in which education, history and politics may impact the production and distribution of cultural meanings, which make such transformations possible. Moreover, the shifting identities members of a culture may craft out of different social discourses position them in and around such cultural meanings thus making it possible for themto pursue contradictory social aims within a cultural formation, and to possibly alter the way in which cultural resources are reproduced. After a brief introduction to the Hmong in northern Thailand and a discussion of some of the social reproduction theory as it has been considered within anthropology and more particularly educational anthropology, the paper will proceed to the crisis and its analysis.

Title: Hmong Americans: A Review of Felt Needs, Problems, and Community Development. Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2003. Additional Source Information: Volume 4. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper is intended to broadly explore both the achievements and needs and problems of the diverse Hmong American community across the United States, with a particular emphasis on felt needs and problems. Felt needs and problems are defined as needs and problems ”perceived by individuals experiencing the problem, may be equated with want and are phenomenological in character” (Cox, Erlich, Rothman & Tropman, 1984, p. 9). Taken from this perspective, among the problems and needs discussed in this paper are those that were identified by key informants or members of the Hmong American community, who live in the community and are well informed of the acute issues experienced by their fellow co-ethnics. Felt needs and problems, in addition to other needs, are very important issues for Hmong community gatekeepers, social workers and service providers to know and understand, in order to effectively work with a particular community (Cox, et al. 1984). The phenomena identified in this exploratory paper are intended to provide a departure point for researchers undertaking future relevant studies of social issues important to the Hmong community.

Title: Hmong of Germany: Preliminary Report on the Resettlement of Lao Hmong Refugees in Germany. Author: Tou T. Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2003. Additional Source Information: Volume 4. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper briefly describes the resettlement of Lao Hmong refugees in Germany since the fall of Laos in 1975. Data for this paper were collected during my two visits to the Hmong community of Gammertingen in southern Germany. Although, it has been known that there are Lao Hmong refugees living in Germany, literature about their resettlement in academic journals and the western media has been nonexistent. Therefore, information about their population, social, educational and economic status has not been available. While serving in the U.S. Army, I was fortunate to be stationed in Germany and had several opportunities to visits and interact with this isolate Hmong community. Therefore, I would like to share what little information I have gathered about this forgotten Hmong community. This paper provides a preliminary report on the resettlement process, population, social, educational and economic status of this community. Data were collected primarily through informal direct interviews with the head of household from four families of the original five families that resettled in Germany. As of thewriting of this paper, there is no other known Hmong community in Germany other than this Gammertingen Hmong community.

Title: Ethnic Tourism -- A Helicopter from "Huge Graveyard" to Paradise?: Social impacts of ethnic tourism development on the minority community in Guizhou Province, South-West China. Author: Xiaoping Wu. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2000. Additional Source Information: Volume 3. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Since the beginning of the 1980s, ethnic tourism has been one of the key industries promoted by the government of Guizhou province in Southwestern China. This industry has brought tremendous changes to the communities of local ethnic peoples in destination areas, especially in improving their economic life. However, although ethnic tourism does bring many positive results to local peoples, it also has a negative side as well. This paper investigates, from a local perspective, some of these impacts, taking the Miao/Hmong communities as a case study. The author contends that if ethnic governments and residents want to sustain their culture and society, they must have an awareness and understanding of both the positive and negative impacts of tourism when considering a project in their community.

Title: Warlord (From Harvesting Pa Chay's Wheat: The Hmong and America's Secret War in Laos). Author: Keith Quincy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2000. Additional Source Information: Volume 3. Pagination: 72 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This is Chapter Eight (Warlord) of Harvesting Pa Chay's Wheat: The Hmong and America's Secret War in Laos, scheduled for publication in March 2000. The chapter chronicles the events that led to Vang Pao's rise to commander, and warlord, of the second military region. It also describes the political machine he created, a vast system of patronage and graft designed to co-opt clan notables (many of them potential political rivals) and, if this failed, a program of assassination for trouble-makers. Vang Pao also acquired wives from various clans to forge ties to clan leaders. To induce ordinary Hmong to support the war effort he spawned, with CIA money and sponsorship, a massive system of welfare that would eventually make more than a hundred thousand Hmong dependent on him for their survival.

Title: The passing of a Hmong Pioneer: Nhiavu Lobliayao (Nyiaj Vws Lauj Npliaj Yob), 1915-1999. Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2000. Additional Source Information: Volume 3. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article provides an obituary of Nhiavu Lobliayao died on June 16, 1999, in Nong Het, Xieng Khouang, Laos. He had been ill off and on since October 1998, and was reportedly paralyzed before his death. Nhiavu was a prominent member of the Lao Revolutionary Party and a key player during the war years (from the late 1940's to the 1970's.

Title: Literacy and L'Armee Clandestine: The Writings of the Hmong Military Scribes. Author: John Duffy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2000. Additional Source Information: Volume 3. Pagination: 32 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: While histories of Hmong literacy development in Laos have focused on the role of village schools, the arrival of missionary Christianity, and the development of various Hmong religious alphabets, one site for Hmong literacy development has been consistently overlooked: L'Armee Clandestine, or the Hmong "Secret Army." This article examines literacy development in the Hmong military, looking at the writings of Hmong military scribes. The article discusses how 1) literacy skills taught in other contexts, such as Laotian public schools, were further developed in the Hmong military, 2) a selected number of Hmong men were introduced through military service to English language and literacy, and 3) military scribes might appropriate literacy to address personal needs and aspirations.

Title: Recent Research and Publications on the Hmong: 1995-1999. Author: Anne Frank. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2000. Additional Source Information: Volume 3. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: A bibliography of recently published research related to the Hmong.

Title: The Hmong and Health Care in Merced County, California. Authors: Miriam Warner and Marilyn Mochel. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 2. Pagination: 30 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article discusses the linguistic and cultural barriers the Hmong encounter when they attempt to access the health care delivery system in Merced County, California. The theoretical portion of the article discusses the concepts of culture, culture change, and some psychological issues that result from culture contact. Western biomedicine is viewed as a cultural system. Following this theoretical section, the cultural and linguistic barriers confronted by the Hmong when they attempt the access health care in Merced are discussed as well as some successful programs in the development of culturally sensitive health care. These include the Southeast Asian Surgical Coordination Team and the Culture Broker Team. The last part of the article covers, in some detail, a multidisciplinary program in cross-cultural health which is being implemented by health workers in Merced County.

Title: Practicing Modern Medicine: "A little medicine, a little neeb" (Review of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors and the Collision of Two Cultures by Anne Fadiman). Author: Yeng Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 2. Pagination: 7 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Book review of Review of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures by Anne Fadiman.

Title: Repatriation: How Safe Is It? Author: Joseph Davy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 2. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article provides updated information on the human rights climate in Laos as it pertains to the repatriation of Hmong refugees from Thailand. The disappearance of Vue Mai and the arrests or demotions of Hmong officals in the Lao government are an indication of the problems faced by Hmong both as repatriates and residents in Laos. The recent abuses against several hundred Hmong at the Ban Phan Thao repatriation site are described in detail.

Title: A Mosaic of Voices (Review of I Begin My Life All Over: The Hmong and the American Immigrant Experience by Lillian Faderman). Author: Robin Vue-Benson. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 2. Pagination: 6 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Book Review of I Begin My Life All Over: The Hmong and the American Immigrant Experience by Lillian Faderman with Ghia Xiong.

Title: Recent Research and Publications on the Hmong: 1995-1998. Author: Anne Frank. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 2. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A bibliography of recently published research related to the Hmong.

Title: The Hmong Qeej: Speaking to the Spirit World. Author: Gayle Morrison. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 17 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This investigation focuses on the unique communicative ability of the Hmong qeej, a free-reed multiple pipe musical instrument. Other forms of the qeej are used by various Southeast Asian cultures, but only the Hmong appear to use it to communicate in words with the spirit world. This study is based on oral interviews with Hmong qeejplayers, focusing on one master qeej player. Discussion reviews the origin legend of the qeej, legendary powers of the instrument, the mystery of the qeej language, training of a qeej player, qualifications of a master qeej player, genre of qeej songs, the role of the qeej in the funeral ceremony, and the qeej as the consumate Hmong cultural identifier.

Title: The Thousand-Year Myth: Construction and Characterization of Hmong. Author: Mai Na M. Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Coined only in the last twenty years, the phrase "Hmong means free" has been thoughtlessly promoted by both Hmong and non-Hmong alike. This phrase, however, simply manifests thousands of years of narrow, one-dimensional characterization of the Hmong. To historical oppressors of Hmong, "free" entails primitive savageness and inability to assimilate, or to enter the fold of what these outsiders defined as civilization. To outsiders, "free" also captures the essence of the warlike Hmong character, the Hmong's inability to compromise on a peaceful, rational level. The author disputes this simple portrayal of Hmong and points to a historical diversity rivaling that of any human group. To various degrees, Hmong have assimilated culturally and politically in both the Chinese and French Indo-Chinese context. In addition, Hmong who have chosen to isolate themselves politically did so in response to unfair practices against them. Throughout, Hmong character and political history is complex. For this reason, the author urges Hmong to be cautious about embracing such a narrow, unfounded definition for the word "Hmong."

Title: Por Thao's Funeral (documentary photo essay) - Text. Author: Joseph Davy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article describes a Hmong funeral ceremony held in the United States.

Title: Por Thao's Funeral (documentary photo essay) - Photos. Author: Joseph Davy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 3 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Photo essay accompanying an article that describes a Hmong funeral ceremony held in the United States.

Title: The Hmong Cultural Repertoire: Explaining Cultural Variation Within an Ethnic Group. Author: Jeremy Hein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 15 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Data on 382 Hmong in Laos and the United States reveal three types of cultural expertise: performing spiritual-medical healing; conducting life cycle rituals; and creating arts and crafts. Only 31 percent of this sample engage in one or more of the practices in this cultural repertoire. A mere 10 percent of the sample account for 54 percent of the 247 cultural practices. This pattern reveals the paradoxical relationship between ethnicity and culture. While all ethnic groups have a culture, there is considerable variation among members in their use of the group's cultural repertoire. This paper uses regression analysis to explain why some Hmong have more cultural practices than others. The results suggest that males have greater access to the Hmong cultural repertoire due their positions of authority in Laos, but that maternal cultural practices promote use of the repertoire by their children regardless of leadership status.

Title: Growing Up Hmong American: Truancy Policy and Girls. Author: MayKao Hang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 54 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article discusses truancy policies in school systems as they impact Hmong American girls.

Title: Recent Research and Publications. Authors: Anne Frank and Robin Vue-Benson (compilers). Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A bibliography of recently published research related to the Hmong.

Title: Labor-Force Participation Among Southeast Asian Refugee-Immigrants: An Update on 1975 to 1984 Entrants. Author: Howard Berkson. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article investigates the labor force participation of a co-hort of Southeast Asian refugees including Hmong in the United States.

Title: Hmong Mens' Adaptation to Life in the United States. Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article describes a range of issues associated with the adaptation experiences of Hmong men in the United States.

Title: The Xiong Family: A Documentary Photo Essay (Narrative Text). Author: Joseph Davy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article provides a photo essay of the daily lives of a Hmong family residing in Chicago.

Title: The Xiong Family: A Documentary Photo Essay. Author: Joseph Davy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article provides a photo essay of the daily lives of a Hmong family residing in Chicago.

Title: Recent Research and Publications on the Hmong (1994-1997) Authors: Anne Frank and Robin Vue-Benson (compilers). Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A bibliography of recently published research related to the Hmong.

Title: Through the Spirits Door (Book Review). Author: Robin Vue-Benson. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Book review of Through the Spirit's Door: A True Story of the Hmong People at War, 1975-1980 by Hueson Yang.

Title: Upon Meeting the Ancestors: The Hmong Funeral Ritual in Asia and Australia. Author: Catherine Falk. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1996. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 1. Pagination: 15 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This paper will describe how the text affects its own tellingat a specific moment in the death rites of the Hmong people,drawing chronologically on seven accounts dating from the1890s to 1992 and ranging geographically from southern China to Thailand, Laos and Australia. To the Hmong --traditionally a migratory people -- the long song of death is the most important ritual text. It is transmitted orally anddoes not exist in written form. Since oral literature is verbal and auditory by its very nature it is supposedly free to change with each telling and each teller. The factors of both a long history of dispersal by migration and an oral tradition could indicate, superficially, that substantial change would occur in the oral literature of the Hmong overtime and place. In this paper, the evidence of translationsof the death song shows, however, a remarkable stability in these texts and from this it will be concluded that the very essence of Hmongness - of Hmong history, ethnicity and worldview - is invested in the stability of the texts of the death narrative, which is in essence a reflexive metacommentary on Hmong society. Finally, some of the indicators for change in the funeral ritual of the Hmong following their diaspora tothe West will be discussed.

Title: Cultural Identity In Post-Modern Society: Reflections on What is a Hmong? Author: Gary Yia Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1996. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 1. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: There is no easy answer to the question of what constitutes the cultural identity of a person or human group. When is someone a Hmong and what are the characteristics of such a person? How is this personal identity moulded into a shared image at the group level? Some may say that there is such a thing as a true Hmong, but many others will argue that there is no such a person today when many Hmong have been assimilated into the local cultures and languages ofthe majority societies in which they now live in China, Southeast Asia or in the West.To grapple with this issue, I will take a dialectic approach which will attempt to arrive at what is considered true by eliminating differences and by synthesising common grounds or potential similarities. I will begin by looking at different concepts from a collective perspective, followed by a similar examination at the personal level focusing on what I regard as being the major characteristics of the Hmong as individuals and as a people. I will then draw my conclusion in the light of the Hmong's diaspora and the globalisation of their contacts today.

Title: Visualizing Change Through Interactive Photography: Transforming Identities, Transforming Research Author: Sharon Bays. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1996. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 1. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article describes a photo project involving members of the Hmong community in California.

Title: Recent Research and Publications on the Hmong (1994-1996). Author: Anne Frank. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1996. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 1. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A bibliography of recently published research related to the Hmong.

Title: Introduction to Hmong Studies Journal. Author: Robin Vue-Benson. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1996. Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 1. Pagination: 3 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This short article introduces the first issue of the Hmong Studies Journal.

Journal of Southeast American Education and Advancement Articles

Title: Because I am a Daughter: A Hmong Woman’s Educational Journey, Author: Kaozong Mouavangsou. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: Lafayette, IN, TX. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper is a critical reflection on the author’s educational experience as a Hmong woman. The author draws on feminist theories, and intertwines the Hmong culture and US education. The paper begins with an introduction about the author’s US-centric perspectives she had about her Hmong community. Her narrative focuses on how these perspectives influenced her interpretations of the events that took place surrounding her decision to attend college away from home. To unpack this experience, the author focused on a need to understand Hmong culture and gendered ideologies by deconstructing her then-western-perspective of why her relatives discouraged her. Through this process, she discusses the complex influences of education and culture. Although her experience is only one of many, it demonstrates how much her education influenced her negotiation between the Hmong and American world. Overall, her personal narrative sheds light on the educational experiences of women who choose to pursue a higher education away from home. In addition to discussing the more general issues of pursuing opportunities in education, her narrative also documents the complex negotiations that many women of color face.

Title: Book Review: Mai N. Moua (2017). The Bride Price: A Hmong Wedding Story. Minnesota Historical Society Press. 240 pp. ISBN: 978-1681340364. Author: Kong Pheng Pha. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: Lafayette, IN, TX. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 8 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Book reviewed by Kong Pheng Pha: Mai N. Moua (2017). The Bride Price: A Hmong Wedding Story. Minnesota Historical Society Press.

Title: Txoj Kev Ntshiab: Hmong American undergraduates’ perceptions of intellectual phoniness and psychosociocultural persistence decisions. Authors: Sengkhammee, Jenjee T.; Her, Pa; Gloria, Alberta M.; Lin, Mariko M.; Thao, Betty Jo; Cabinte, Desiree; and Aroonsavath, Linda. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: Lafayette, IN, TX. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: Volume 12, Issue 1. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Examining the educational experiences of 103 Hmong American undergraduates, gender and class standing differences emerged using a psychosociocultural approach. Females reported increased perceptions of family and friend support and greater cultural congruity in the university environment than males. Lower-division students indicated greater perceptions of social support from family, greater cultural congruity, and lower self-esteem than upper-division students. Feelings of phoniness emerged as the most significant negative predictor of academic persistence decisions. Implications, limitations, and future research are discussed.

Title: Educational Careers of Hmong American Students. Authors: Pao Lor and Ray Hutchinson. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: Lafayette, IN, TX. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: Volume 12, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Hmong American college students are an underrepresented and understudied college student population. The Hmong are often described as a preliterate, semi-nomadic, and agrarian ethnic hill tribe from Southeast Asia that have had little contact with formal education before coming to the United States some four decades ago. In this descriptive and exploratory study, we analyze the demographic characteristics and educational achievement of one hundred ninetyfour (n=194) Hmong students who were admitted to and attended a four-year state university in the Midwest from 2002–2010. We summarize their demographic data and academic achievement, and we compare their academic achievement to that of their college peers. We also examine correlations between their high school academic achievement and their college academic progress, and we report on their post-secondary outcomes.

Title: Gender, Culture, and the Educational Choices of Second Generation Hmong American Girls. Author: Bao Lo. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: Lafayette, IN, TX. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: Volume 12, Issue 1. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Research on the educational achievement of racialized minorities and immigrants have largely discussed culture as either a deficit or an advantage for academic success. This paper explores gender differences in educational achievement and how the educational choices of second-generation Hmong American girls are impacted by racially constructed gender norms. In response to hegemonic and subordinated femininities, second-generation Hmong American girls pursue education to enter mainstream America and reject Asian ethnic culture and femininity. Gender equality is normalized and equated with White femininity and American mainstream culture while Asian femininity and ethnic culture is constructed and subordinated as “other”. This research complicates the salience of culture in scholarship on minority student achievement and considers how the educational choices of second-generation Hmong American girls draw ideologically on a racial discourse that reinforces white dominance.

Title: The Model Minority Maze: Hmong Americans Working Within and Around Racial Discourses. Authors: Stacy Lee, et al. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: Lafayette, IN. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: Volume 12, Number 2. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Whether framed as model minorities or used as evidence that the model minority is a myth, Hmong Americans and other Southeast Asians are constrained by the model minority stereotype. As a disciplinary tool, the model minority stereotype controls Asian American experiences and identities. This paper explores the complex and diverse ways that Hmong Americans in a community in Wisconsin are making sense of and responding to the model minority stereotype and the racial positioning of the Hmong American community. Our paper will illustrate the persistent power of the model minority stereotype to frame Asian American experiences, identities and actions.

Title: (Mis)Labeled: The Challenge of Academic Capital Formation for Hmong American High School Students in an Urban Setting. Authors: Anna Chiang et al. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: Lafayette, IN. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: Volume 10, Number 1. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: The Model Minority Myth for Asians as a group disguises the challenges facing Hmong and other underrepresented Southeast Asian groups. Using the theoretical framework of Academic Capital Formation (ACF), this qualitative study examines the implications of the Model Minority Myth by focusing on the experiences and educational challenges of Hmong American high school students in an urban setting in the Midwest. Results from this study alludes to a bimodal pattern of achievement amongst the Asian American Pacific Islander community, emphasizing the importance of increasing visibility for underrepresented Southeast Asians, such as Hmong Americans, with regards to access to higher education.

Title: Kawm Ntawv Qib Siab: Understanding the psychosociocultural educational experiences of Hmong American undergraduates. Authors: Mariko M. Lin et al. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: Lafayette, IN. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: Volume 10, Number 1. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Using a psychosociocultural framework, this study examined the educational experiences of 85 Hmong American undergraduates attending a predominantly-White university. Differences in class standing indicated that upper-division students reported higher confidence in college-related tasks than their lower-division counterparts, yet the upper-division students perceived a less-welcoming university environment that was incongruent with their cultural values than the lower-division undergraduates. Peer support, college self-efficacy and cultural congruity were salient variables in understanding Hmong American undergraduate’s educational experiences. The study’s limitations, future research directions, and implications for college administrators and faculty are discussed.

Title: Book Review: Diversity in Diaspora: Hmong Americans in the Twenty-First Century by Mark Pfeifer, Monica Chiu and Kou Yang. Author: Ma Vang. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: Volume 8, Number 1. Pagination: 6 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Book review of Diversity in Diaspora: Hmong Americans in the Twenty-First Century, an anthology of articles pertaining to Hmong Americans.

Title: Navigating Multiple Worlds: A Qualitative Study of the Lived Experiences of Hmong Women Leaders. Authors: Lena Moua and Jim Riggs. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: Volume 7, Number 1. Pagination: 26 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article presents the findings from a narrative study that examined the leadership development and pathways of nine prominent Hmong American women leaders from Minnesota and California. Each of these women was able to break through the cultural and gender glass ceiling to become positional and influential leaders in mainstream American society. The study focused on the factors that contributed to the participants leadership development; strategies used in attaining and maintaining leadership roles; and barriers each participant encountered on her path to becoming a leader. Important findings included the impact of poverty, the prominent role of education, inner strength the women possessed, importance of networking and support systems, and strong role models. Other factors included familial responsibilities, gender disparities, racism and ageism. The conceptual frameworks of Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarule (1986), and Alon and Higgins (2005), were utilized to guide the analysis and presentation of each participants life journey, and show the intersections between culture and feminist epistemology. The narrative case study approach included in-depth interviews, collective story mapping and re-narration techniques to explore the lives of these women leaders. One overarching goal of the study and this article is to create a greater understanding of complex issues and impediments associated with leadership development, with the hope of beginning a dialog that will help facilitate policy changes regarding developing and supporting minority women in leadership roles.

Title: Book Review: The Latehomecomer by Kao Kalia Yang. Author: Sarah Hansen. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 5, Number 1. Pagination: 8 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Book review of The Latehomecomer.

Title: Looking Gran Torino in the Eye: A Review. Author: Ly Chong Thong Jalao. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: Volume 5, Number 1. Pagination: 6 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Film review of the Clint Eastwood movie, Gran Torino.

Title: Do I Look Up or Do I Look Down? Reflections of a Hmong American English Learner and Educator. Author: Kay Vang. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: Volume 4, Number 1. Pagination: 9 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Drawing from my own schooling experiences as an English learner, I share my views and beliefs in relation to the deficit model, assimilation model, and caring model. I especially focus on experiences of English learners, as they are the fastest growing subgroup in the nation. I further share and discuss challenges that some EL students may experience at school along with some teacher perceptionsand attitudes.

Title: Supporting Hmong Newcomers Academic and Social Transition to Elementary School. Authors: Martha Bigelow, Letitia Basford, Esther Smidt. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 3, Number 1. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: When elementary aged Hmong children were resettled in St. Paul Public Schools after the closing of the Wat Tham Krabok refugee camp in Thailand, their families largely enrolled them in either a Transitional Language Center or a Language Academy program. This study reports on the perceptions teachers and educational assistants had about how well these programs met the needs of this unique population of newcomers. Findings show that the Transitional Language Centers were better able to ease the adjustment to school for the Hmong newcomers because of the safe, bilingual environment they created.

Title: Are We There Yet? Examining the Principals Role in the Integration of Hmong Refugee Children into Elementary Schools. Author: Kyla Wahlstrom. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 3, Number 1. Pagination: 19 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This paper examines the efforts of four elementary principals to create a welcoming and integrated culture for newly arrived Wat Tham Krabok refugee Hmong children. It reveals the accommodations and challenges made by the schools. It demonstrates that the effectiveness of a specialized program for newcomer refugee children necessitates careful planning and the involvement of staff members and school leaders.

Title: The Affective Consequences of Cultural Capital: Feelings of Powerlessness, Gratitude, and Faith among Hmong Refugee Parents. Author: Bic Ngo. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 3, Number 1. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: In education research, the analysis of the role of cultural capital has focused primarily on its role in parent involvement. Little attention has been paid to how cultural capital affects the attitudes or feelings of parents about their worth and roles as parents. In this article I examine the impact of the exclusionary characteristic of cultural capital on refugee Hmong parents from Wat Tham Krabok. I highlight themes of uncertainty, powerlessness, gratitude and faith that parents repeatedly raised when speaking about their childrens education. I suggest that paying attention to the affective emotiona lconsequences of cultural capital is critical for understanding the outlook of refugee Hmong parents on their childrens education.

Title: Cambodian, Hmong, Lao and Vietnamese Americans in the 2005 American Survey. Author: Mark E. Pfeifer. Source: Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 3, Number 1. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: The figures included in this short article are from the 2005 American Community Survey (ACS) released by the U.S. Census Bureau in late 2006. The 2005 ACS data set involves estimates based on surveys distributed to only a subset of the U.S. population and is thus problematic in some respects. This concise article is intended to provide basic 2005 demographic, educational and socioeconomic data related to Cambodian, Hmong, Lao and Vietnamese in the United States. It is not intended as a comprehensive explanatory research paper of factors underlying contemporary demographic, educational, and socioeconomic trends in these four ethnic communities. These topics should ideally be the focus of additional quantitative and qualitative research. Most of the figures used in this article are from the “Cambodian alone or in any combination,” “Hmong alone or in any combination,” “Lao alone or in any combination,” and “Vietnamese alone or in any combination population” profiles including in the 2005 ACS.

Title: Hmong Parents Critical Reflections on Their Childrens Heritage Language Maintenance. Author: Terry Yang. Source: Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: Volume 3, Number 1. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This study utilizes a qualitative method to explore the critical reflections of Hmong parents helping their children maintain their native language. Specifically, it examines parents thoughts, feelings and experiences related to Hmong language maintenance. Findings reveal that Hmong parents worry about their children losing their ability to speak their native language. They believe that maintaining the Hmong language provides advantages in achieving academic success, attaining careers, and continuing to serve as role models in the community. Parents stressed the need to use Hmong at home in order to help their children develop and maintain the language. They reported some successes in doing so, while acknowledging several challenges.

Title: Book Review: Up Against Whiteness: Race, School, and Immigrant Youth. Author: Chang Pu. Source: Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 7 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Book review of Up Against Whiteness by Stacey Lee.

Publications Produced by the Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center, Hmong Cultural Center (St. Paul) and/or submitted by Contributors

Title: Hmong Americans in the 2013 American Community Survey. Author: Mark E. Pfeifer. Source: Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 3 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A short article analyzing Hmong American population and demographic trends in the 2013 American Community Survey in California, Minnesota and the U.S. as a whole.

Title: Bibliographic Guide to Recent Hmong Studies Research. Author: Mark E. Pfeifer. Source: Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Along with an overview of recently released census data from the 2012 American Community Survey, this report provides an overview of key recent works in Hmong Studies research in the realms of education, socioeconomic adaptation, health, race relations, gender, cultural adaptation, Hmong in Asia studies and reference works.

Title: Hmong 101 Presentation by Hmong Cultural Center (Updated November 2012). Author: Mark E. Pfeifer and Txongpao Lee. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A short presentation with a basic introduction to the Hmong. The document includes information about the Hmong population around the world, a timeline of Hmong history, a summary of Hmong involvement assisting the U.S. in Laos during the Vietnam War era, Hmong refugee migration to Western countries, Hmong population in the U.S., Hmong American demographics, Hmong clans, Hmong religion, the Hmong language, cultural etiquette for, and resource websites.

Title: Generation and Gender Roles in Hmong Society, Part 1. Author: Kou Yang. Source: California State University, Stanislaus. Publisher Location: Turlock, CA. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 48 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A short presentation which provides an overview of gender and generational roles in Hmong society in Asia and the United States.

Title: Generation and Gender Roles in Hmong Society, Part 2. Author: Kou Yang. Source: California State University, Stanislaus. Publisher Location: Turlock, CA. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 39 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Part 2 of a short presentation which provides an overview of gender and generational roles in Hmong society in Asia and the United States.

Title: An Overview of Recent Developments in Hmong-American and Lao-American Studies Research. Author: Mark E. Pfeifer. Source: Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center. Publisher Location: Saint Paul. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: Presentation by Mark E. Pfeifer at the 2nd International Conference on Lao Studies, Arizona State University, May 4, 2007. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This short presentation provides information about Hmong and Lao American population and demographic trends in the 2005 American Community Survey. A comparison of research trends in Hmong and Lao American Studies is also provided.

Title: Resources for a Dialogue on Hmong Studies: Panel Presentation. Author: Mark E. Pfeifer. Source: Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center. Publisher Location: Saint Paul. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: Panel Presentation by Mark E. Pfeifer at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, April 11, 2006. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: The author of this short presentation provides some thoughts on what a Hmong Studies academic program might encompass. Also provided is an overview of recent research in Hmong Studies, research needs in the Hmong Studies field and a list of online research resources.

Title: The State of Hmong American Studies (Bibliographic Essay). Author: Mark E. Pfeifer. Source: Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center. Publisher Location: Saint Paul. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This bibliographic essay provides an overview of key research publications in different subfields of Hmong Studies including health and medicine, education, gender, family life and relationships, oral and family histories, religious adaptation, cultural consumption and production, socioeconomic incorporation and race relations, and research resources.

Title: Hmong-Related Research: Past, Present, and Future Directions (Bibliographic Essay). Author: Mark E. Pfeifer. Source: Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center. Publisher Location: Saint Paul. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: N.A. Format: HTML (Web-based)

Abstract: This short article is intended to introduce the reader to the Hmong Studies literature. Key scholars and works from different eras are discussed including the 18th century up to 1950, 1950-1975 and post-1975. The author also speculates about future directions in the field. A bibliography of important Hmong Studies publications is provided.

Title: General Interest Hmong Resources Presentation. Author: Mark E. Pfeifer. Source: Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center. Publisher Location: Saint Paul. Year: 2004. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 26 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Intended for a general audience, this short presentation provides information about available resources to the Hmong in different topical subfields including overviews of Hmong culture, Hmong American literature, Hmong American health and medicine, Hmong American education, lesson plans and activities for youth, youth and children's books, dictionaries, bibliographies, statistical information, academic journals, literary journals, videos and research websites.

Title: 2000 Hmong Census Publication. Authors: Hmong Cultural Center and Hmong National Development. Source: Hmong Cultural Center and Hmong National Development. Publisher Location: Saint Paul and Washington D.C. Year: 2004. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 75 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This report provides detailed statistical data related to Hmong Americans in the 2000 census. Data tables are provided at the national level and also the state level for states with substantial Hmong populations. Seven analysis articles are presented by scholars. These articles discuss population, demographic, educational, socioeconomic and housing trends impacting Hmong American communities.

Title: Hmong Studies Scholars Respond to NY Times Article ("Hmong Hunter Said to be a Shaman"). Authors: Dia Cha, Mark Pfeifer and Nicholas Tapp. Source: Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center. Location: Saint Paul. Year: 2004. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: N.A. Format: HTML (Web-based)

Abstract: In this short piece, three scholars of Hmong Studies react to a New York Times article that attempted to make a connection between the traditional Hmong religious practice of shamanism and a tragic incident in Wisconsin in 2004 involving a confrontation between a Hmong hunter and several non-Hmong hunters.

Title: Hmong Journey for Freedom Author: Mai Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Internet Resource Center. Location: Saint Paul. Year: 2002. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: N.A. Format: HTML (Web-based).

Abstract: This short article describes the experiences of Hmong in Laos and refugee camps in Thailand following the aftermath of the Communist Pathet Lao takeover of the country in 1975.

Title: Txoov Siv Yis. Hwj Huaj Neeb Kho Mob. Tus Txiv Neeb. Hwj Huaj Neeb. Lwm Sub Xa Xyoo Laus. Pov Pob Xyoo Tshiab. (History of the Shaman Ceremony in Hmong Culture). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A short history of the Hmong Shaman ceremony in Hmong culture. This publication is in the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Zaj Qeej Tu Siav. Zaj Qeej Tsa Nees. Zaj Qeej: Tshais, Sus, Hmo. Zaj Qeej Cob Tsiaj. Hlawv Ntawv Thiab Sawv Kev (Hmong Qeej Songs Played in the Hmong Funeral Ceremony). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A collection of Qeej songs played in the Hmong funeral ceremony. The publication is in the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Zaj Nkauj Tu Siav. Zaj Nkauj Noj Sus. Zaj Nkauj Noj Hmo. Zaj Nkauj Hlawv Ntawv. Zaj Hu Muam Phauj Los Txiv Dab Laug Tuaj Hlub. (Hmong Funeral Ceremony Songs Part 1). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A collection of orally recited funeral songs from the Hmong funeral ceremony. The publication is in the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Cov Nkauj Plig. Zaj Nkauj Plig Qab Cub. Zaj Nkauj Plig Noj Sus. Zaj Nkauj Hlawv Ntawv. Zaj Txhiaj, Txhais Plig. (Hmong Funeral Ceremony Songs Part 2). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A collection of Hmong funeral ceremony songs in the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Tshoob Kos (Hmong Traditional Wedding Procedures). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A guide to Hmong Wedding Procedures. In the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Hmoob Lub Neej Nyob Yaj Ces Tuam Meem Teb (Suav Teb) Txij Li Tiam 1 Mus Txog Tiam 18. (Hmong Life in China from the 1st Century to 18th Century). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Information and folk legends about Hmong life in China from the 1st Century to the 18th Century. The publication is in the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Hmoob Lub Neej Nyob Yaj. Ces Teb Tsim Meej (Los Tsuas), Txij Li Tiam 18 mus txog tiam 20 (Hmong Life in Laos from the 18th to 20th century). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Information about Hmong history in Laos. Written in the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Dab Neeg hmoob lub ntuj tsim lub teb raug (Hmong History: The Beginning of the World). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A discussion of a folk tale that tells about the beginning of the world. The publication is in the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Dab Neeg hmoob lub ntuj tsim lub teb raug (Hmong History: The Beginning of the World)(Long Version). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A discussion of a folk tale that tells about the beginning of the world. The publication is in the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Neeg lub cev zeej txhiaj (The Human Body (Heart/Liver, etc). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 8 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Not available.

Title: Tus Txheej Txheem Kab Kev Pam Tuag (Hmong Traditional Funeral Ceremony Procedures). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This book describes the procedures associated with the traditional Hmong funeral ceremony. The work is in the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Hauv Paus Lus Tseem Ceeb Cob Qhia Keeb Zeej (A Guide to Morality in the Hmong Culture). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Not available.

Title: Qeej. Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1999. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 29 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Curriculum for teaching the Qeej Musical Instrument. In the Hmong RPA script.

Title: Tsev Teej Kawm Hmoob Txuj Ci. Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 38 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Not Available.

Title: Phau ntawv piav txog haiv hmoob lub neej ua nojrun haus nyob. Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 70 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Not Available.

Title: Yawg Paj Cai Vwj Sawv Xov Khawm Xyoo 1919 Mus Txog Xyoo 1921 Nyob Los Tsuas Sab Qaum Teb Yog Dab Tsi? Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 38 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Not Available.

Title: Zaj Kwv Huam Hais Txog. Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Not Available.

Title: Dag Neeg Tshiaj Tsov Neeg. Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 25 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Not Available.

Title: Phau Ntawv Qhia. Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: N.A. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 77 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Not Available.

Title: Hmoob keeb kwm nyob tuam tshoj yaj ces tuam meem teb (China). Author: Tougeu Leepalao. Source: Hmong Cultural Center. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 17 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Information about Hmong history in Guizhou province in China.

Hmong-Related Dissertations and Theses Online from the University of Minnesota's Digital Conservancy

Title: Sib Piav Neej Neeg: Co-Constructing Young Hmong American Women's Narratives with Young Hmong American Women Storytellers. Author: Kao Nou-Moua. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 153 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Many studies on Hmong American youth represent what Eve Tuck (2009) describes as damage-centered research. Damage-centered research focuses on the problems and deficits of a community rather than the complexities. This study centers Hmong knowledge, values, and traditional ways of inquiry, and challenges the current portrayals of young Hmong American women as victims of culture, disengaged from community, and uninterested in Hmong oral traditions. Eight young Hmong American women storytellers participated in this study, sharing the complexities, contradictions, and desires of their lived experiences. This study highlights the ways in which young Hmong American women resist, maintain, shape, and transform cultural practices, expectations, and traditions.

Title: Gut microbiome westernization in Hmong and Karen refugees and immigrants in the United States. Author: Pajao Vangay. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 144 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Many United States immigrant populations develop metabolic diseases post-immigration, but the causes are not well understood. Although the microbiome plays a role in metabolic disease, there have been no studies measuring the effects of U.S. immigration on the gut microbiome. We collected stool, dietary recalls, and anthropometrics from 514 Hmong and Karen individuals living in Thailand and the U.S., including first- and second-generation immigrants and 19 Karen individuals sampled before and after immigration, as well as from 36 U.S.-born Caucasian individuals. Using 16S and deep shotgun metagenomic DNA sequencing, we found that migration from a non-Western country to the U.S. is associated with immediate loss of gut microbiome diversity and function, with U.S.-associated strains and functions displacing native strains and functions. These effects increase with duration of U.S. residence, and are compounded by obesity and across generations.

Title: Bittersweet Migrations: Type II Diabetes and Healing in the Hmong Diaspora. Author: Mai Thao. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 167 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: As the seventh leading killer in the United States, type II diabetes disproportionally burdens minorities and those of lower socioeconomic standing, especially immigrant and refugee communities. However, why might a segment of a refugee population engage in return migration to places of exile for healing? Examining disease as socially and physically produced, this project investigates the multiple meanings behind return migrations to Laos and Thailand for Hmong-Americans with type II diabetes and who are 50 years and older. Based on 30 months of multi-sited ethnography, conducted in the clinic setting of St. Paul, Minnesota and the sites of Hmong-American travel destinations in Laos and Thailand, this dissertations argues that diabetes management focuses on the discipline of the somatic body through glucose monitoring, diet, and exercise. Yet, Hmong-American patients surface the need for social care-to attend to the social chronicity of being displaced refugees. Feelings of bodily difference and displacement in diabetes narratives produce a fluid Hmong-American subjectivity that actively remembers the past and places of familiarity. Nostalgia, melancholy, return migration, reception and discourse by Hmong-Lao and Hmong-Thai, and the embodiment of place and herbs, creatively engages in social care, centered around social continuity of kinship and origin. Through the social fields of the diabetic body, Hmong-Americans, Hmong-Lao, and Hmong-Thai, that a (de)territorialization of the Homeland, a place of exile, is transformed for a Hmong-American belonging. Yet, paradoxically, discourse about a cure from diabetes and a true Hmong-American return migration is often spoken as through death. The claim to death restructures the social order of chronic disease management (where death is often displaced) and Hmong-American racial position in the U.S. Death as an ultimate form of cure and return is a political claim to an eternal Hmong body politic.

Title: Hmong American Children's Perceptions of Parents' Influence on Their Education. Author: Jordan St. Charles. Source: MA Thesis, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 92 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Previous research on children’s academic outcomes has often highlighted parent involvement behaviors as key predictors of students’ academic outcomes, but previous research has typically neglected Hmong American children. Using a sample of N = 423 Hmong American elementary students from Hmong-focused charter schools, the present study seeks to understand the ways in which various parent involvement behaviors (including parent involvement in schooling at home, parent involvement in schooling at school, and parent communication about the importance of education) relate to these students’ perceived academic abilities in reading and math. The present study also investigates whether or not students’ English proficiency moderates these relationships. Findings from regression analyses indicate that English proficiency is the strongest predictor of students’ perceived math and reading abilities. Parent involvement in schooling at school also significantly predicts students’ perceived abilities in both content areas, and parent communication about the importance of education significantly predicts students’ perceived abilities in math but not reading. Parent involvement in schooling at home was not a significant predictor of outcome. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Title: Hmoobness: Hmoob (Hmong) Youth And Their Perceptions Of Hmoob Language In A Small Town In The Midwest. Author: Jordan St. Charles. Source: MA Thesis, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 196 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: For thousands of years, Hmoob culture and traditional knowledge survived by being passed down orally from one generation to the next through sacred ceremonial songs, poetry, gatherings, and folklore. For oral cultures, languages becomes an important vehicles in the passing of one’s culture, especially from the Elders to the youth (Thao, 2006). This phenomenological study draws upon Indigenous methodologies and adaptation of grounded theory (Smith, 1999; Creswell, 2013; Kovack, 2010). The research seeks to understand 1) the perceptions of Hmoob youth of their language; 2) the relationship Hmoob youth have to their language, and 3) what they believe are barriers to Hmoob language acquisition. The research found that Hmoob youth cared deeply about their language and culture and believe barriers to language acquisition includes racism, bias curriculum, and the pressures to assimilate and conform. The research also found that Hmoob youth have many questions, and concerns regarding the survival, revitalization, and maintenance of their language. The recommendations are for the Hmoob community, cultural workers, practitioners of Hmoob language and schools.

Title: Pharmacogenetic Investigations Using Community-Based Participatory Research to Address Health Disparities in Minnesota Hmong. Author: Youssef Roman. Source: MA Thesis, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 250 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Introduction: Pharmacogenomics is an approach to personalizing therapy to help patients achieve their therapeutic goals with the least possible adverse events. This approach relies on the knowledge derived from large genetic studies that involve diverse populations to guide the development of treatment algorithms. The underrepresentation of select populations or unique sub-populations in genetic-based research presents as a gap in knowledge to create comprehensive genetic-based treatment algorithms and a missed opportunity to address health disparities within those unique populations. A prime example is the Minnesota Hmong. The Hmong is an Asian sub-population minimally represented in clinical or genetic-based research with a high prevalence of gout and gout-related comorbidities than non-Hmong. Methods: Using the principles of community-based participatory research and the establishment of the Hmong advisory board, assessment of the community’s perception of genetics and preparedness for engagement in research were conducted. Capitalizing on the findings from the first informational study, two Hmong genetic-based studies were conducted. The first study was to ascertain the frequency of select pharmacogenes and disease-risk genes in the Hmong, relative to non-Hmong. The second study was to quantify the effect of genetic variations within uric acid transportome and purine metabolizing genes on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of allopurinol in Hmong adults with gout or hyperuricemia. Results: The informational study results indicated that most Hmong are willing to participate in research to help themselves and the Hmong community. Some of the genetic perceptions in the Hmong were not scientifically grounded and some concerns about privacy were reported while the return of genetic results to participants had mixed responses. The first genetic-based study indicated that more than 80% of Hmong participants were willing to store their DNA for future analyses and share their DNA with other scientists. Pharmacogenes risk allele frequencies of CYP2C19, CYP2C9, VKORC1, and CYP4F2 were higher in the Hmong relative to Caucasian. Disease risk allele frequencies of hyperuricemia and gout associated genes such as SLC2A9, SLC17A1, SLC22A11, SLC22A12, ABCG2, PDZK1, were also higher in the Hmong than Caucasian and Han-Chinese. The second genetic-based study indicated that the genetic variation within SLC22A12 (rs505803T>C) significantly affects the exposure to and the renal clearance of the active metabolite of allopurinol, oxipurinol. Additionally, the rs505802 was also significantly associated with the overall response to allopurinol. Conclusions: Engaging the Hmong in genetic-based research is a step forward to advance precision medicine while addressing health disparities within the Hmong community. The prevalence of pharmacogenes within the Hmong suggest that the Hmong will require a lower starting dose of warfarin and unlikely to benefit from clopidogrel. The prevalence of hyperuricemia and gout associated risk alleles in the Hmong are consistent with the higher prevalence of gout in the Hmong. Finally, the rs505802 T>C within SLC22A12 gene could predict the overall response to allopurinol.

Title: Queer Refugeeism: Constructions of Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Hmong Diaspora. Author: Kong Pheng Pha. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 402 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Queer Refugeeism examines how the “refugee” figure relates to Hmong American racial, gendered, and sexual formation, belonging, and politics in the U.S. Examining various discourses around gender and sexuality such as rape, abusive transnational marriages, polygamy, and underage marriages, Part I crafts out ideological formations of race, gender, and sexuality in Hmong American communities. Queer Refugeeism uses texts such as newspaper documents, Hmong American ethnic cultural productions, and legislative bills to explicate a discourse of hyperheterosexuality that renders Hmong American culture and Hmong Americans as racially, gendered, and sexually deviant subjects. Part II turns to the material as I weave in youth narratives and community activism with secondary sources to expound how queer Hmong American youths are intertwined within dominant and Hmong American cultural discourses regarding race, gender, and sexuality. I argue against essentialist framinings of culture that posit Hmong Americans as perpetual refugees incompatible with queer modernity while showcasing how queer Hmong American youths are remaking culture and belonging on their own terms. Overall, Queer Refugeeism tackles how race, gender, and sexuality are integral to Hmong American refugee and queer youth belonging within the U.S.

Title: Documenting Hmong and Lao Refugee Resettlement: A Tale of Two Contrasting Communities. Author: Saengmany Ratsabout. Source: MA Thesis, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 58 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This paper explores the migration of refugees from Laos to the United States following a civil war further complicated by U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. Drawing from previous studies on Southeast Asian refugees during the initial wave of resettlement, as well as new data from the past four decades, this study focuses on two ethnic communities in Minnesota, the Hmong and Lao. The comparison of these two communities is unique in that they are from the same country, were involved in the same kind of conflict, share similar socio-economic backgrounds, and fled the country of Laos for the same reason. Although resettling to the U.S. for the same reasons and starting with similar circumstances (levels of educational attainment, English fluency, etc.), in the nearly 40 years since their arrival, their experiences have diverged. What explains the discrepancy in integration of the Hmong and Lao?

Title: Being Hmong, being American: making sense of U.S. Citizenship. Author: Annette Marie Miller-Simmons. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 295 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This ethnographic case study was conducted in one 12th-grade American Government class at a public high school in a large Mid-western city. The class included 10 Hmong students, and eight of these youth agreed to participate in the study. Multiple data sources were analyzed for themes, patterns, and issues, including classroom observations and document analyses of instructional texts and American Government curriculum utilized in the observed classroom. All eight participants contributed to at least two focus group interviews, and four of these eight students completed two additional individual interviews, acting as focal contributors to this research. Two formal and various informal interviews were also conducted with the classroom teacher regarding her ideas and intentions around citizenship education for her students.Three significant findings emerged in this study. First, the American Government classroom was a space for civic and political identity construction for Hmong youth. Second, the American Government classroom was not the only active political socialization agent; Hmong youth shaped and negotiated their citizenship identities with others including family members, and in other venues like youth clubs and cultural activities. Third, Hmong youth negotiated their citizenship identities in relationship to race, gender, and class. However, as Hmong youth prepared for adult, democratic citizenship, they experienced little opportunity in their American Government course to practice ways to navigate racialization, gender issues, and economic challenge in their personal lives. Ongoing professional development is needed to help social studies educators address critical issues around race, gender, and class in their classrooms and schools, especially for immigrant students.

Title: The lived experience of second-generation Hmong American teen mothers: a phenomenological study. Author: Phoua Xiong. Source: M.A. Thesis, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 91 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Research and literature tend to focus on racial groups other than Asian Americans due to their relatively statistically low teen pregnancy rates. This study aims to contribute to that gap by examining the lived experience of five second-generation Hmong American teen mothers. Using a phenomenological approach, the study found that most participants were culturally but not legally married, thus they are not counted in the statistics on teen marriages. Although participants were still teenagers, they considered themselves adults once they were culturally married and/or became mothers. In addition to carrying the responsibilities associated with the roles of wife and mother, they added another significant role in the Hmong culture—that of daughter-in-law. However, even with these demands, most participants had completed high school and were planning to pursue post-secondary degrees. Findings from the lived experiences of the participants in this study contribute to a more culturally nuanced understanding of teen motherhood and marriage and provide insights into the support that Hmong teen mothers need to be successful.

Title: Hmong American College Women’s Experiences of Parent-Child Relationships. Author: Shuling Peng. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 138 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This qualitative study examines the parent-child relationships of Hmong American college women. Fourteen women in their junior or senior year from five Midwestern colleges or universities participated in the study. Symbolic interaction theory was used as a guiding framework and a phenomenological method was employed to understand the Hmong American college women's lived experiences of independence from and closeness to their parents and the perception of their role and identity in their interactions with parents. Analyses of the interviews revealed seventeen domains in total under three primary themes, including (1) I am more independent, (2) I am closer to my parents, (3) I am struggling to find a balance. The emerging developmental task for these college-age Hmong American women is to successfully negotiate roles and identities while balancing both cultures.

Title: Hmong youth arts culture: Music teaching and learning in community settings. Author: Kinh Tien Vu. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 240 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Pre-service music educators are dedicated to learning the art of classroom and ensemble teaching, but they may be unaware of their ability to affect students’ thinking and music making around critical issues outside school music settings. Although numerous studies have identified a need to enhance music educators’ emphases in teacher education or music teaching in general to be inclusive of critical and democratic practices that forward students’ voices, little attention has been paid to how teachers help youth express their ideas about societal issues outside the music classroom. The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the musical art forms and activities in Hmong communities that will inform democratic education in teacher preparation programs. Focusing on rap, spoken word poetry, and lyrical songs of ten Hmong youth artists, three guiding questions will be explored: (a) In what kinds of musical activities do youths participate? (b) For what purposes do Hmong youths create their arts? and (c) How might what Hmong do in their community inform music teacher preparation? Music educators who bring together various teaching and learning opportunities, critical pedagogy, and democratic action will forward students’ voices and help them become change agents for themselves, their schools, and communities. In this ethnographic study, I found that given opportunities to create raps, spoken word poems, and songs, Hmong youth become proactive citizens who advance the tenets of a free and democratic society in their communities when they express their ideas centered on personal, group, social, and political issues that affect them. The results of this study demonstrate that music teacher preparers will serve their pre-service music educators by forging a new, critical, and democratic practice that might be learned from community musicians.

Title: Methadone population pharmacokinetics: toward understanding the dose-response relationship in the treatment of opiate addiction. Author: Gavin Bryce-Samuel Bart. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 209 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Methadone is a synthetic opiate agonist that is highly effective in the treatment of opiate addiction. When given as a long-term therapy, methadone maintenance reduces morbidity and mortality associated with opiate addiction. It is thus considered an “essential” medication by the World Health Organization. The benefits of methadone maintenance in the treatment of opiate addiction are well established. Predicting treatment response for a given individual, however, remains difficult. While methadone dose is generally associated with treatment outcome, large interstudy and interindividual variability in plasma concentrations of methadone have made it difficult to link dose response to pharmacokinetic parameters. This thesis explores characteristics of methadone maintained patients and develops a population pharmacokinetic model that identifies variables associated with methadone pharmacokinetic parameters. Chapter 1 provides a general review of the three Food and Drug Administration approved pharmacotherapeutic agents for the treatment of opiate dependence. Chapter 2 reviews the clinical pharmacology of methadone as used in the treatment of opiate dependence. Chapter 3 introduces us to the Hmong and their paradoxically exceptional treatment outcome in methadone maintenance on lower doses of methadone than their non-Hmong counterparts. This retrospective study helps form the hypothesis that their better treatment outcome is related to greater methadone exposure.The results of this population pharmacokinetic study and the psychosocial differences between Hmong and non-Hmong are presented in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively. We found that the lower methadone dose requirement is explained by higher apparent bioavailability of methadone in Hmong. Other influences on methadone pharmacokinetics, more specifically clearance, include age, body mass index, and single nucleotide polymorphisms in the ABCB1 and CYP2B6 genes. While the potential for culture to influence methadone treatment outcome is acknowledged, there remain sufficient grounds to hypothesize a significant biological (i.e., pharmacokinetic and/or pharmacodynamic) influence.

Title: What does it mean to be a “Good Parent” according to Hmong parents?: a phenomenological study. Author: Dung Minh Mao. Source: M.A. Thesis, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 79 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The current study examines what constitutes good parents in the Hmong community in Minnesota. Nineteen parents (12 mothers and 7 fathers) participated in the study, and they represented 47.4% first-generation, 42.1% second-generation, and 10.5% 1.5-generation. Phenomenology was employed and symbolic interaction theory was utilized as a guiding framework to understand the meaning participants attached to their parenting role. Analyses of the interviews revealed seven domains and 46 themes that constitute good parents, including (1) provision, (2) involvement, (3) communication, (4) characteristics of good parents, (5) community perception, (6) motivation for being good parents, and (7) good parent education. Implications of the study and future research efforts are also discussed.

Title: Cervical cancer screening behavior of Hmong women: a social network analysis. Author: Shweta Shweta. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 150 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This study examined the relationship between health and cervical cancer networks of Hmong American women and their cervical cancer screening practices. Incidence of cervical cancer and cervical cancer mortality rates are high for Hmong American women (Mills, Yang & Riordan, 2005; Ross, Xie, Kiffmeyer, Bushhouse & Robinson, 2003). Cervical cancer mortality rates for Hmong American women are three times higher than Asian American and Pacific Islander women and four times higher than non-Hispanic White women (Yang, Mills & Riordan, 2005). Despite high cancer related mortality rates, the utilization of cervical cancer screening is low (Yang, Mills & Dodge, 2006). Regular screening is important as it helps to detect cancer early when the treatment is most effective (Tanne, 2012). Barriers to cancer screening in the Hmong community include a lack of education, low income, cultural beliefs, language, traditional health practices, and mistrust of the Western health system (Lee & Vang, 2010). Hmong people value social cohesion and community living and often consult community members for making health related decisions (Barrett et. al., 1998). Using network analysis and logistic regression, this study explored the relationship between specific characteristics of the cervical cancer network and cervical cancer screening practices of Hmong American women. The health networks of study participants included all friends, family, health care providers, or co-workers with whom they had discussed their health in the last one year. Likewise, cervical cancer networks included everyone with whom the study participants had discussed cervical cancer in the last one year. Analysis found that Hmong American women who had a cervical cancer network were more likely to be aware of pap tests, receive pap tests and be aware of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines than Hmong American women who did not have a cervical cancer network. Having a cervical cancer network was not significantly associated with receiving HPV vaccines or Hmong American woman's perceived need for cancer screening. When controlled for demographic variables, a cervical cancer network was not found to be a significant predictor of cancer screening practices. With regard to characteristics of members within the cervical cancer network, education was found to be significantly associated with the awareness of HPV vaccines. Analysis also found that income, number of years in the United States and ability to speak English were significant predictors of Hmong American women having a cervical cancer network. Further, income, education, and having a regular health care provider were also significantly associated with cervical cancer screening practices of Hmong American women. It is important that practitioners and policy makers use social networks as a resource to improve the utilization of screening services. Programs for encouraging screening should target clients and their networks. For developing culturally appropriate screening programs, policy makers should consult local leaders. Programs developed in consultation with community may be efficacious in convincing Hmong American women to utilize services regularly (Lee & Vang, 2010).

Title: Sociophonetics of Hmong American English in Minnesota. Author: Eden A. Kaiser Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 152 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This dissertation is a sociophonetic analysis of the English spoken by Hmong Americans living in the Twin Cities" of Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota. The Twin Cities has the largest urban population of Hmong Americans in the United States. Through studies of production and perception of vowels involved in sound changes, I investigate whether Hmong Americans, a relatively new ethnic group in the United States|have established any elements of an ethnic dialect of English that communicates an identity that is uniquely Hmong American. Sound changes are particularly fruitful objects of sociophonetic study as they provide a spectrum of potential indexical variables for speakers exposed to those sound changes. I examine Hmong Americans' participation in three sound changes: the Northern Cities Shift, the low back merger, and fronting of the high back vowel (/u/ or goose). Their degrees of participation in those sound changes are compared to age-matched European Americans from the same area. It was expected that the inferred tight-knit nature of Hmong Americans' social networks would cause a slower uptake of current regional and supra-regional sound changes versus the comparatively looser networks of many European Americans in the Twin Cities. Furthermore, the target population should presumably experience some in uence in their English from the Hmong language. Crucially for this study, the Hmong language has phonemic nasal vowels whereas English does not. This L2 in uence of phonemic nasal vowels was hypothesized to emerge in Hmong Americans' English as less nasalization overall, and to decrease the likelihood that they will engage in the Northern Cities Shift. The results of the production study show that European American speakers seem to be participating in one supra-regional sound change, the fronting of the goose vowel, to a greater extent than in the past, and to a greater extent than Hmong Americans. Two other sound changes, the Northern Cities Shift (a regional change) and the low back merger (a supra-regional change), show inconclusive evidence of adoption by either EA speakers or HA speakers. The perception study, which was conducted with a new set of participants, aimed to uncover whether phonetic dierences between Hmong Americans' and European Americans' vowel pronunciations are actually detectable by others. Words recorded during eldwork were rated on a visual analog scale by listeners on several dierent dimensions of speakers' social characteristics, including ethnicity. It was found that although certain expected phonetic dierences were not used to make judgments of speakers' ethnicities, other phonetic dierences, some expected and some not, did indeed predict listeners' judgments of speaker ethnicity. Listeners seemed to use either formant values or vowel nasalization (or sometimes both) to judge speaker ethnicity, depending on vowel class, listener ethnicity, and listener birthplace. Taken together, the results of the two studies provide evidence that Hmong Americans' vowel pronunciations are not simply Hmong-in uenced imitations of vowels as spoken by European Americans, and that listeners, especially other Hmong American listeners, can use these complex yet systematic phonetic patterns to make accurate decisions about speakers' ethnicities.

Title: Hmong baby carriers in Minnesota: a material culture study. Author: Mary Alice Chaney. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 154 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This study of Hmong baby carriers in Minnesota demonstrates the value of studying objects for what they convey about the people and the culture that make and use them. Hmong baby carriers have many functions, seen and unseen, that when examined and analyzed further an understanding and knowledge of Hmong culture in transition. The Hmong living in Minnesota came to the United States as refugees from the war in Southeast Asia. They left their highland homes in Laos to wait out the conflict in refugee camps in Thailand. But returning home and to the life they longed for became impossible. So many Hmong found themselves living in the harsh climate of Minnesota. The first Hmong started arriving in 1976, eventually St. Paul became home for one of the largest populations of Hmong in the United States. Life has brought many challenges but the Hmong continue to adapt to change and thrive. The McClung Fleming model for artifact analysis guided this study. The two part process identifies basic properties of the object and analyzes those properties through identification, evaluation, cultural analysis, and interpretation. Hmong baby carriers were brought by the 1st generation of Hmong immigrants to the United States as functional objects with symbolic and contextual meaning. Today Hmong baby carriers are still part of the cultural landscape but with added symbolism and contextual meaning for the 1.5 and 2nd generation of Hmong.

Title: Fourth grade Hmong students’ reading proficiency. Author: Megan C. Mahowald. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 162 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The No Child Left Behind Act mandates that all students be proficient in reading by 2013. Researchers and practitioners alike have noticed that Hmong students do not achieve as well as their monolingual peers and other bilingual students. Linguistic factors alone do not account for this discrepancy, but rather a number of sociocultural factors are likely at work (Au, 1998). The current two-part mixed methods study is designed to explore factors of reading development and proficiency of fourth grade Hmong students in one large, urban school district. Part one of this study explores the reading proficiency of fourth grade Hmong students through a quantitative analysis of standardized reading assessment scores. I determine what percentage of Hmong students are reaching proficiency standards using frequency data and complete one-way analysis of variance to compare Hmong students with other linguistic groups. Part two of this study utilizes case study method to explore the relationship between oral language, reading proficiency and self-perceptions of ten fourth grade Hmong students. I selected five students who were reading at a fourth grade level and five students who were reading below grade level. I complete oral language assessment, reading assessment, interviews and classroom observations. I analyzed the data at the group level (at and below grade level) to determine discrepancies in performance. I also analyzed data at the individual level to create six profiles of reading proficiency. It is important that as teachers and researchers we learn all we can about how to assess and support oral language skills, reading proficiency and uncover the complex identities of Hmong students.

Title: Themes in the career development of 1.5 generation Hmong American women. Author: Ava Yang. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 156 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Research on the career development of Asian Americans have typically aggregated the diverse Asian ethnic groups as one group for study and have employed cross-cultural comparison methods often based on a deficit model that overlook important within group differences and ignore the subjective experience of the individual. This qualitative study set out to understand the ways in which 1.5 Hmong American women have experienced, understood and have navigated their career development processes, and sought to answer the questions: How do 1.5 generation Hmong American women understand and make meaning of the term "career"; what are the themes and characteristics of the career development process for 1.5 generation Hmong American women; and what factors influence the career development processes of 1.5 generation Hmong American women? Twenty participants were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed using principles of inductive analyses and modified CQR method. Six domains and 31 themes emerged from the analyses. The domains that emerged were: 1) Career Conceptualization, 2) Self and Career Actualization, 3) Family, Cultural, and Gender Expectations, 4) Systems of Support: Family, Role Models/Mentors, and a Sense of Community, 5) Overcoming Challenges and Barriers, and 6) Resilience. Implications and recommendations based on the findings were also made.

Title: Promoting a cancer screening program to Hmong women in Minnesota: the role of source matching and acculturation. Author: Laura Michelle Friedenburg. Source: MA Thesis, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 100 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The present research assesses the effect of source matching and level of acculturation on Hmong women’s interest in a free cancer screening program, their intended behavior to both share the message and call the program, as well as their evaluation of the message. Results show few significant main effects and no moderation effects. Results are discussed, problems are addressed, and future directions to encourage cancer screening in the Hmong population are recommended.

Title: Dreaming of home, dreaming of land: displacements and Hmong transnational politics, 1975-2010. Author: Her Vang. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 469 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This dissertation documents the historical development of the transnational politics of the Hmong, a people who came to the United States as refugees from the Vietnam War, from 1975 when the Hmong left Laos to 2010 when the Lao PDR government rejected Hmong leader Vang Pao's request to return to Laos. Drawing on archival research, ethnographic fieldwork, and oral history interviews in Laos, Thailand, and the United States, it interrogates how and why the Hmong diaspora continued to engage in Lao national politics from exile. What role did the Hmong diaspora play in the ongoing fighting in Laos? In what ways, under what conditions, and to what extent did the Hmong diaspora transcend domestic political systems and engage in non-domestic (i.e. international or transnational) ones? How did the bilateral and multilateral relations between the United States and Asian nation-states, particularly Laos, Vietnam, China, and Thailand, affect Hmong transnational politics and the political, economic, and social status of Hmong Americans? What impact did Hmong transnational politics have on the bilateral relation between the United States and their Asian homeland of Laos? It examines the disparate political and institutional forces that shaped the rise, fall and resurgence of Hmong transnational politics, including the Sino-Vietnamese border dispute, the Communist revolution and the Second Secret War in Laos, the Communist insurgency in Thailand, and the Second Cold War, the 1996 Welfare Reform and the War on Terror in the United States. It shows that Hmong transnational politics, as a legacy of the U.S. military intervention in the Secret War in Laos in the 1960s, emerged in part to redress the human rights abuses back home and in part to rebuild broken lives and shattered communities in the diaspora. Ultimately, it argues that the Hmong failed to "liberate" Laos not only because the Hmong were divided and ambiguous about their desired goal in Laos but also because Thailand, China, and the United States solely used the Hmong to protect their own geopolitical interests. They never supported the call of the Hmong for self-determination or intended to save them from communist persecution in Laos.

Title: An investigation of contextual factors and dispositional characteristics in the career development of Hmong American and caucasian American college students: a comparison study using a social cognitive career theory perspective. Author: Zoua Chang. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 221 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This study investigated race/ethnic and sex comparisons among 182 Hmong American and 198 Caucasian American college students in regards to specific career development variables. Hmong American college students reported more perceived educational and career barriers and fewer resources (e.g., career decision-making self-efficacy, family support) than did Caucasian American college students. Caucasian American female college students reported more perceived educational and career barriers and less career decision-making self-efficacy than did their male counterparts. Contrary to expectations, Hmong American female college students reported more role model support than did their male counterparts. These results suggest that relations among career variables are likely to vary by sex and race/ethnic group membership, which supports the need to investigate these relations among different minority groups.

Title: The impact of acculturation and environmental change on dietary habits, weight gain, and cultural practices among Hmong adults and children in Minnesota. Author: Lisa Franzen. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 314 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This study assessed the impact of environmental change and acculturation on Hmong adults and children, who have lived in the United States (US) for varying amounts of time, by investigating changes in food system access, grocery purchasing influences, eating behavior, BMI, and health status. This research has shown how the combination of quantitative (Geographical Informational Systems software and census data, food store surveys, acculturation assessment, food frequency questionnaire, theory based survey) and qualitative (focus group discussions) methodologies has the potential to provide a more complete picture of how immigrants adapt to their new food environments. As more immigrants become introduced to food secure, obesogenic environments, such as the US, it will be important to examine how this transition impacts the health of current and future generations.

Title: Examining family and community influences on the attitudes to education and career aspirations of Hmong/Mong high school students. Author: Nealcheng Xeng Thao. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 267 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: To date, little research has been conducted on the family and community influences on the attitudes to education and career aspirations of Hmong/Mong high school students. The Hmong / Mong refugees began their resettlement in the United States since 1975. The first wave came to the U.S. from 1975 to 1984; the second wave came here from 1985 to 1999; the third wave came from 2003 to the present time. The Hmong/Mong were a pre-literate ethnic minority people living in the highland areas in the northern part of Laos. They were recruited to fight the secret war in Laos and were admitted to resettle in the United States for their loyalty to the American government during the Vietnam War. The purpose of this qualitative ethnographic study was to examine the family and community influences on the attitudes to education and career aspirations of Hmong/Mong high school students in the Twin Cities and its surrounding areas. The research questions which drove this study were: What is like to be a Hmong/Mong student at home and in the Hmong/Mong community? What are the influences on the education of Hmong/Mong students? What are the attitudes of Hmong/Mong students toward their education? What are the educational aspirations of Hmong/Mong students? What are the career aspirations of Hmong/Mong students? The literature review included an exploration of these influential and career aspirations factors. The research design included a series of in-depth interviews with fifty-two Hmong/Mong participants ages fourteen to twenty-two years old, male and female, northern and southern Hmong/Mong, different religious affiliation, and members from eleven clans. The data were collected between the months of December 2007 to July 2008. All interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed. The interviews were in both Hmong/Mong and English. The transcripts were done by four individuals who are competent in both Hmong/Mong and English. Transcripts were analyzed for themes. Based on this analysis, results of the study were formulated. The findings of this study included the following items: (What is like to be a Hmong/Mong student at home and in the Hmong/Mong community?) (a) Constant lecture is a means of communicating expectation for Hmong/Mong students; (b) Family continues to be the main source of influence on Hmong/Mong students' education; (c) The family past and current hardship is a tool to influence Hmong/Mong students' education; (d) The Hmong/Mong community hardship and their underdog status are a tool to influence Hmong/Mong students' education; (What are the influences on the education of Hmong/Mong students?) (e) Positive connection with specific key teacher or counselor or administrator at school has positive influence on Hmong/Mong students' education; (f) Positive support network of peers influences and increases Hmong/Mong students' success in education; (g) The U.S. education system is perceived as excellent and it influences and increases Hmong/Mong students' academic success; (h) Positive self-esteem, pride, and strong character influence Hmong/Mong students' education; (i) After school programs and supportive programs increase Hmong/Mong students' success in education; (What are the attitudes on Hmong/Mong students toward their education?) (j) School is important to Hmong/Mong students; (k) Success of others influences Hmong/Mong students' education; (What are the educational aspirations of Hmong/Mong students?) (l) Hmong/Mong students have aspiration to move up their socio-economic status; (m) Hmong/Mong U.S.-born adolescents assimilate faster and become more individualistic; (n) Hmong/Mong culture is a source of resilience to Hmong/Mong adolescents; (o) Recent arrival Hmong/Mong students have high aspiration to continue school after high school; (What are their career aspirations?) (p) First generation Hmong/Mong adolescents have high aspiration in diverse career choice; and (q) Parental involvement has positive impact on Hmong/Mong adolescents' education and career choice. This study concurs with the Voluntary and Involuntary minorities' model of John Ogbu. The Hmong/Mong's experience in the U.S. education falls into the Voluntary Minorities category of John Ogbu. This study has crucial implications for policymakers, who are responsible for policies and programs that directly or indirectly affect the Hmong/Mong students' education; other groups that bear the implications of this study include postsecondary administrators, secondary administrators, families, advocates, individuals, and those for future research.

Title: Intimate partner violence among Hmong American men and women. Author: Pang Foua Yang Rhodes. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 120 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This qualitative study utilized semi-structured interviews with 12 Hmong men and women regarding their experience of and explanations for intimate partner violence (IPV) in their marriages. Results from inductive thematic analysis indicated a range of IPV behaviors: (a) physical violence, (b) verbal threats, (c) legal recourse, (d) physical aggression, (e) manipulation and control and (f) sexual violence. The men were more likely to attribute IPV to situational anger and frustration, and the women, to personality. Behavior modification was the second leading explanation given by both groups. In addition, extra-marital affairs, polygyny and international marriages emerged as relational contexts salient to IPV. It is argued that both Coercive Controlling Violence and Situational Couple Violence were presented by the sample.

Title: Assessment of cleft palate articulation and resonance in familiar and unfamiliar languages: English, Spanish, and Hmong. Author: Kelly Nett Cordero. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 126 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Linguistic diversity is increasing in the patients seen for cleft palate treatment and there are not enough providers who speak multiple languages. There are no published studies which directly investigate the ability to assess cleft palate articulation and resonance in a language not spoken by the examiner. The aim of this study was to determine whether listeners could make accurate judgments about articulation and resonance in languages they do not speak and to determine how experience level and familiarity with a language affect these ratings. Binary (presence/absence) and visual analog scale (VAS) judgments were obtained for hypernasality, misarticulations, speech acceptability, and overall velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) of English, Spanish, and Hmong samples from naïve listeners, generalist speech-language pathologists (SLPs), and specialist SLPs. The speech samples were obtained from 22 speakers, nine with a history of VPD and 13 controls. The ratings were completed by 24 native English listeners, eight at each level of experience (naïve, generalist SLP, specialist SLP). Overall, the listeners were more accurate for determining the presence/absence of misarticulations, speech acceptability, and VPD in English compared to Hmong. Hypernasality and VPD ratings in English were more accurate than in Spanish and ratings of misarticulations were more accurate in Spanish than Hmong. VAS ratings of hypernasality were highly correlated with the nasalance values from oral phoneme reading passages. Statistically significant correlations were present for overall and group ratings in English. Less consistent correlations were observed in Spanish and no significant correlations were present in Hmong. Overall, listeners judged English ratings to be easier to make, and were made with more confidence, compared to Hmong. Overall, the SLP specialists tended to find the ratings in all languages easier to make and were more confident than naïve listeners. Many of the expected differences for ratings based on listener experience and language familiarity were observed. There were advantages for all listener groups in English when compared to Hmong. These differences were inconsistent and weaker when Spanish was compared to English. The experience advantage for listeners was most apparent in English and Hmong.

Title: A phenomenological study of the coming out experiences of gay and lesbian Hmong. Author: Pahoua K. Yang. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 126 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The issue of sexual orientation remains a taboo one in the Hmong community, but one that must be addressed, particularly as more Hmong Americans continue to negotiate multiple identities, including sexual orientation. This study explored some of the internal and external processes involved with the coming out experiences of gay and lesbian Hmong. The aims of this study were to provide space for Hmong lesbians and gay men to tell their stories, to provide gay and lesbian Hmong examples of coming out, and to provide clinicians with an understanding of the unique and common issues with which Hmong lesbians and gay men must contend. Eleven participants, five men and six women, were interviewed using a structured interview guide. Ten of the interviews were transcribed and analyzed using a modified CQR method. Nine domains and 34 themes emerged. The domains that emerged were: meaning-making, language, coming out, family, gender role expectations, the role of religion, intra/inter cultural experiences, life-changing lessons, and hopes. Implications and recommendations based on the findings are also made.

Title: Minimizing Methylmercury Exposure in the Hmong Community from Sport-Caught Fish Consumption in Minnesota. Author: Daniel Endreson. Source: Plan B Project Paper, Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota. Location: Minneapolis. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 50 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Due to increasing levels of mercury emissions throughout the world, there is an increased threat to the human population from methylmercury, a biomethylated derivative of mercury. Methylmercury is a dangerous neurotoxin that can have adverse effects on the central nervous system and behavioral centers of the brain. Humans can become exposed to methylmercury through consumption of contaminated fish from polluted waters. Many states, including Minnesota, use fish consumption advisories to warn the public of methylmercury exposure, but these advisories may not always reach at-risk segments of the population. The Hmong community in the Twin Cities consumes a high quantity of sport-caught fish for a variety of reasons, including a desire to maintain cultural identity, recreation, or economic necessity, even though fish consumption advisories warn against such actions. Four alternatives were considered to provide better protection to the Hmong community from methylmercury exposure – (1) continue the use of fish consumption advisories as developed by the Minnesota Department of Health (MDH), (2) alter the current program by reallocating advisory education efforts from state agencies to local governmental units and organizations, (3) impose a ban on the consumption of all fish from methylmercury-impaired waters in the Minneapolis/St. Paul metropolitan area, and (4) establish more Asian-specific food shelves in the Twin Cities area to provide food alternatives to sport-caught fish. Each of these alternatives were evaluated using six criteria – safety effectiveness, program awareness, social and cultural acceptability, administrative operability, program cost, and health benefit. This report concludes that efforts taken by the MDH in educating Hmong anglers have the promise of being effective in reducing methylmercury exposure from fish consumption. However, based on theories of risk perception and communication, more needs to be done at both the state and local level to effectively target this specific subpopulation in Minnesota.

Hmong-Related Theses online from University of Wisconsin-Stout

Title: Developing an Effective Training Program for First Generation Hmong Employees in Manufacturing Positions. Author: Bee Yang. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 44 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Research was conducted to find if there are ways that technical training can be offered in a fashion that addresses the learning needs of the first generation Hmong employees working in manufacturing positions. These employees are employed in positions that require them to learn and understand how to use technical equipment as part of their jobs. A total of 14 first generation Hmong individuals participated in the interview, which consisted of six questions. The analysis of results revealed the following common themes: (1)The limited ability to speak, read and understand English amongst first generation Hmong creates barriers to learning the operation of technical equipment during training and in the workplace; (2)The Hmong believe that on-the-job and hands-on training are the most beneficial forms of training for them; (3)Having more time available to utilize the technical equipment is important to improve the Hmong understanding of the equipment and performance.

Title: The Meaning of Therapy in the Lives of Hmong and Iraqi Refugees. Author: Lyn Anne Evanson. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 48 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences about and perceptions of therapy by Hmong and Iraqi refugees. The objectives of this study were to contribute to the literature on what therapy means to Hmong and Iraqi refugee populations. Hmong and Iraqi refugees living in the metropolitan area of the Twin Cities in Minnesota were requested by their mental health practitioner to participate in the study. Participants responded to seven demographic questions and five questions about the meaning of therapy in their lives. Participant responses were analyzed using grounded theory method. The results demonstrated cultural differences in how Hmong and Iraqi refugees viewed, experienced, and talked about the meaning of therapy

Title: Impostor Phenomenon Among Hmong College Students. Author: GaoNhia Moua. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 72 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Impostor Phenomenon (IP) refers to feelings of phoniness experienced by high achievers (Clance & Imes, 1978). Many studies have been conducted and have found that college students can experience IP, preventing them from internalizing their own success, leading to feelings of self-doubt and anxiety, and affecting their academic performance and their decision to quit their educational pursuits. Provided is a detailed review on IP and Hmong students' college experience. However, there is no exclusive study done on IP among Hmong students. A thorough review of peer reviewed articles on IP and Hmong students' college experience resulted in 39 studies, ranging from 1978 to 2014. The review outlines the impact of Hmong culture on college experience for Hmong students, impostors' relationships with their parents, constructs associated with impostors, mental health and treatment of impostors, personalities of impostors, and specific impostor populations and groups. Without specific research done on the effects of IP on Hmong college students, it is difficult to discern the actual effects. This may be an essential topic for future research to investigate, possibly to increase retention and graduation rates overall. This research may also lead to more beneficial treatment for IP as well.

Title: A Culturally Reflexive Comparison of Somatic Experiencing and Hmong Shamanism in the Treatment of Trauma and Soul Loss. Author: Rachel M. Martin. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Trauma is mentioned throughout the literature on the mental health status of Hmong Americans. Less frequently, soul loss is mentioned, though nowhere are similarities and differences between these seemingly related concepts explored. Here these concepts are compared and contrasted in order to better understand how paying attention to one's own culture (cultural reflexivity) can foster more culturally responsive psychotherapy and more innovative cross-cultural research. The concept of trauma is examined primarily through the lens of a body-oriented trauma healing modality called Somatic Experiencing (SE®) because its conceptualization and treatment of trauma appear similar in certain ways to how Hmong shamans conceptualize and treat soul loss. Together these concepts and healing modalities are explored using a bricolage qualitative research methodology. The critical and multi-perspectival nature of bricolage research helps make visible assumptions within Western cultural research and clinical practice paradigms which might be difficult to see using other research methodologies. The importance of paying attention to the culturally constructed view of self (as predominantly independent or interdependent) emerges as a key finding of this research.

Title: Intersections of Identities: A Hmong Voice from the Field. Author: Mai Bao Xiong. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 45 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This paper explores the intersections of mymultiple identities as Hmong, as American, and as a psychotherapist, through the use of autoethnography. I provide first-person narratives of my own lived experiences navigating identity intersections within the context of mental health. Themes form mypersonal accounts are discussed and connected to potential future research to include the voices of other Hmong therapists. I conclude by inviting readers to join a calling in of my souls to initiate self-healing.

Title: Factors Influencing Hmong Women’s Decision to Breastfeed in La Crosse County, WI Author: Michelle M. Murphy. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 55 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The objective of this study was to identify behavioral intentions specific to the Hmong population using the Theory of Planned Behavior. A convenience sample of 25 Hmong mothers in western Wisconsin participated in the study as part of a brunch for Hmong women held at the La Crosse Public Health Building. Participants completed a questionnaire that measured theoretical constructs (behavioral beliefs, control beliefs, and normative beliefs) that measured their intentions to exclusively breastfeed their infants for six months. Forty percent of mothers reported infant health as an advantage to exclusive breastfeeding and 40% of mothers reported difficulty balancing work as a disadvantage to breastfeeding. Forty percent of mothers identified convenience as a facilitator of exclusive breastfeeding and 80% of mothers reported returning to work as a barrier. Forty percent of women felt no disapproval to performing exclusive breastfeeding, and 40% of mothers felt disapproval from an employer, themselves, or family. Interventions and polices to increase breastfeeding among Hmong mothers in western Wisconsin should focus on facilitating links within the Hmong community that support traditional breastfeeding practices, educating Hmong women to take advantage of their workplace breastfeeding rights, and encouraging an emphasis on cultural competency in healthcare settings.

Title: Parental Influence on Hmong Students decision towards higher education. Author: Ong Lo. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 48 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This study is to examine the influence of parents on Hmong students and if Hmong gender roles, cultural barriers, assimilation and acculturation to the American culture in the United States can affect Hmong students’ decisions to pursue higher education. Hmong males are expected to do well to preserve and carry on the family reputation and name. Hmong males are encouraged to go out and seek knowledge, in hopes of not only leading the family but the clan (pertaining to 18 Hmong last names) and the Hmong community as well. Hmong females are expected to learn traditional family roles. Older generations hold a high expectation of their daughters to keep the traditional Hmong ways of caring for their immediate family until they are married.Encouragement for males to obtain a higher education may seem more likely to happen. School Counselors are expected to learn of multicultural counseling to effectively reach out to all students. It’s important for school counselor’s to know of and learn about the Hmong culture to effectively help Hmong students and give them resources necessary to obtain a higher education.

Title: Socialization and Hmong Student Success in Career and Technical Education. Author: Carmen Iannarelli. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 73 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This study examines factors affecting the academic performance of Hmong students at Chippewa Valley Technical College. Factors specifically analyzed for their impact upon student success are socioeconomic status, family support, the use of academic support programs, and the influence of agents of socialization. Through the use of archival institutional data, Hmong students were compared to white students at CVTC in terms of their relative grade point averages, course completion rates, and retention rates. Data revealedsignificant disparitiesin grade point average performance between Hmong and white students. The data also showed that eligibility for financial aid was significantly higher among Hmong students, and that this difference was commensurate with educational performance gaps between the two groups. Additionally, online surveys were used to assess family support while attending CVTC, the role of academic support programs, and influential agents of socialization. Gender differences in grade point average performance and socialization also were analyzed. Implications of the study’s findings are discussed and recommendations for improving the performance of Hmong students are provided.

Title: Improving the literacy skills of low-income bilingual preschoolers. Author: Linda E. Benzschawel. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The gap between the literacy scores of preschool children in poverty and their middle and upper class peers upon entry into kindergarten continues to grow. This proposal seeks $712.00 to increase the emergent literacy skills of a group of low-income preschool children through providing a combination of quality children’s literature in their native language for home and school use, and training for their parents on strategies to support their children’s emergent literacy skills. Research by Lee and Burkam (2002) found that the cognitive scores of preschool aged children in poverty are more than 60% lower than their peers in higher socioeconomic groups (p.19). Improving the emergent literacy skills of low-income preschoolers is central to closing this gap. Preschool Dual Language Learners (DLLs) in poverty are at an even bigger disadvantage with very few pieces of quality children’s literature in their native language available at school and in their homes. This proposal focuses on the multilingual Bayside Head Start program, which serves 18 low-income preschoolers and their families. This group includes native English, Spanish and Hmong speaking children and families. The following objectives are proposed to meet this need: 1.Increase the number of books in each child’s native language in the classroom. 2.Increase the children and family’s access to books in the child’s native language in the home. 3.Increase the parent’s ability to support and nurture their child’s developing emergent literacy skills. 4.Increase the children’s emergent literacy skills.

Title: Parenting styles of Hmong parents and its effects and contributions to Hmong student's academic achievement. Author: Sandy Moua. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 42 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: In 1975, the Refugee Assistance Act of 1975 granted access to the first wave of Hmong refugees into the United States. The 2000 United States Census counted 170,049 people who identified themselves as Hmong. While the struggles of the Hmong people are very different in Laos and Thailand; the United States refugees and immigrants continue to face a different array of difficulties and hardships. In spite of their difficulties acculturating into the culture and adapting to the United States, Hmong-American parents soon identify and stress the value of an education to their children. This research reviewed parenting styles of Hmong-American parents and how the parenting styles contributed to Hmong-American children's academic achievement and success. Parenting styles have been correlated with children's academic achievement and success. Limited research has identified that Hmong-American parents are viewed as more authoritarian in regard to their children's education than European-American parents. Even though Hmong-American parents are viewed as more authoritarian, their children still do very well in school when compared to Caucasian students whose parents are typically identified as authoritative; the parenting style research suggest correlates to better academic achievement in children. This research also identified that Diana Baumrind's parenting styles may not necessarily reflect those of other ethnic cultures.

Title: Perceived Hmong Cultural Barriers in School Counseling. Author: Shoua Chang. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Even with the vast research in multicultural counseling, little is known about the 2 perspective of the Hmong students. Students with more than one ethnic culture may face barriers throughout their life that challenge their decision-making. Depending on how acculturated Hmong immigrants, first generations, second generations, and future generations may be, they will each have their own insight on how to handle a situation. The objective of this literature review is to highlight some perceptions that Hmong students may encounter in the school counseling setting. The other outcome of this study is to share ideas for school counselors who are working with Hmong students. Both the school counselor and Hmong students face multiple baniers when working together. Counselors need to be aware of their own cultural biases, cultural differences, and acculturating generations, when considering strategies to support Hmong students and their families. Some risks of being unfamiliar with other cultures may include misunderstanding of 3 students, miscommunication, or cultural discrimination. The Hmong have encountered many challenges as they move from country to country as families adjust to a new life style. In the United States, the Hmong have an opportunity to seek advice from outside of their norm. With the increase in diverse populations, counselors must prepare themselves to work with future bicultural or multicultural generations. It is not expected that all school counselors are experts in serving every different multicultural population, but it is hoped that awareness of other cultures will increase their competence and reduce any biases. The recommendations given in this research may help educators improve and understand the perception of the Hmong culture.

Title: American Hmong Youth and College Readiness: Integrating Culture and Educational Success. Author: Mary Huffcutt. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 43 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The Hmong people have a rich and turbulent history in which their strength and 2 deten11ination can be shown. Their culture embraces the family. Each member has a significant role to play and with these roles come purpose, not only to sustain but also to thrive. Through their persistence and strength in family, the Hmong refugees are writing a remarkable story. A story they hope will show success. The Hmong people place value on education. They see it as a way to gain success and respect in America. However, there is a gap between who is going to college and who is not. Hmong students are less likely to go to college than white students. And the gap widens when adding the socio-economic status. Low-income, minority students are far less likely to enter college than white middle-to high-income students.

Title: Hmong Traditional Roles and the Pursuit of Higher Education for Married Hmong American Women. Author: Mai Shoua Khang. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 60 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The patriarchal traditional Hmong culture has defined expectations for both Hmong men and women. In Laos, education and employment opportunities were restricted to sons who were more valued than daughters. Since the immigration of the Hmong to the United States, education and employment have become accessible to Hmong women. However, traditional Hmong gender roles and values continue to be strong practices impacting Hmong women negatively in regard to their educational pursuits. Young married Hmong women who are expected to fulfill their obligations as new wives and daughters-in-law often delay or discontinue their educational plans. This researcher found reoccurring themes in literatures regarding the relationship between Hmong women's traditional gender roles and their abilities to obtain higher education. This researcher also interviewed nine married Hmong women informants who were pursuing their education. Reoccurring themes expressed by the informants were compared to the existing literature on Hmong women's gender roles and challenges. These themes focused on marital challenges, educational impacts, Hmong women in higher education, and changes needed to support and advocate for Hmong women. This researcher concluded that the importance of maintaining Hmong traditional gender roles overshadowed the importance of obtaining an education for Hmong American women.

Title: Assessment of Risk Factors for Developing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Hmong Americans from Dunn
County, Wisconsin. Author: Tanya Christopherson. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 110 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to identify if the Hmong of Dunn County, Wisconsin have risk factors for developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. Thirty-one subjects (17 males aod 14 females) from 18-60 years old participated in the study. Data was collected at the Dunn County Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, lnfaots, and Children, and Hmong Stout Student Organization of University of Wisconsin-Stout. Subjects completed a survey which assessed risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus such as: age, weight status, smoking habits, eating habits, magnesium and fiber intake, physical activity, and past medical history. Height and weight of subjects were measured by the researcher, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated from these measurements. A qualititative food frequency questionnaire was administered to determine magnesium and fiber intakes as well as consumption from several food groups. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics such as the mean, Pearson correlation, and paired t test. Results indicated 54.8% of subjects had inadequate fiber intakes (less than 66% of the Adequate Intake). The major sources of fiber included: fries, bananas, oats, chocolate milk, pork/harn, coconut cream, and candy bars. The majority of subjects had no risk associated with age, overweight, physical activity, magnesium intake or smoking habits. Past medical history of diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol were insignificant. No significant correlations existed between any of the risk factors studied. In conclusion, the only risk factor associated with type 2 diabetes found in this study was inadequate fiber intake. Hrnong subjects of this study may need to increase their fiber intake to at least 16.5 g of fiber per day(66% of the Adequate Intake). The primary source of fiber consumed may suggest a small degree of acculturation.

Title: The beauty perceptions of Hmong American college women. Author: Kia Lee. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 77 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: There is considerable research regarding body image and beauty perceptions among minority women such as African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans. However, little research has been done on beauty perceptions among women of the Hmong population. The objective of this research was to determine what Hmong-American college women perceive as physical ii beauty and to identify the most important factors that may influence their perceptions. In order to further an understanding of those factors, a definition of what these females perceive as physical beauty needed to be established and defining this perception was the focus of this study. online survey was used to measure the participants' perceptions of physical beauty ideals. This survey was sent to three universities in western Wisconsin; a total of 51 surveys were completed. The survey focused primarily on the participants' own perceptions. Results suggested that Hmong American college women's perceptions of physical beauty are similar to those found in the body of research describing the general Asian American female population. While they chose ideal body shapes that were mid-size and were associated with being healthy Western media still appeared to be the most influential factor impacting Hmong American women's perceptions of beauty. Respondents identified Western media, Western celebrities, Asian media, Asian celebrities, and Western culture as being their most important influencing factors while friends and family were less ofan.influence. However, the extent to which Western media affects Hmong women's perception of beauty is still inconclusive and warrants further investigation.

Title: The Vietnam War: Two Hmong Soldiers’ Personal Experience in the Secret War. Author: Gjinn Lor. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 68 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The main purpose of this historical research is to reveal the true stories of the Vietnam War from two Hmong individuals who participated in the Vietnam War. Their stories will pass down to their children and future generations when they are no longer living. This research will describe the two individuals' personal experiences in the Vietnam War and how they managed to escape to safety. The two Hmong soldiers were selected with age in mind, one having served as a teenager, the other as an adult. By having two different ages, there will be two different perspectives about the Vietnam War. The instrument used in this study was developed and designed by the researcher and was an interview questionnaire. The interview questions were written in two languages, Hmong and English, back to back. The questions were used as a guideline. What the individuals chose to tell the researcher may have gone outside the boundaries of the survey questions. The results of the study are based on the comparison of the two individual soldiers' lives, who were involved in the same war and hearing their perceptions of the war. This study shows that Hmong soldiers, involved in the Vietnam War, joined hands with the Americans proudly, but have some reservations and regrets in terms of the price paid by the Hmong people for being allies with the U.S. Further research is needed to document more Hmong soldiers' experiences in the Vietnam War. In future research studies should include how the war experience of Hmong soldiers impacts their lives in the U.S. and those of immediate family members. What counseling implications might this have for the individual and the family? This could provide more understanding of what Hmong people have gone through during and after the Vietnam War and what services might be helpful to those who may want to get help from professionals.

Title: Wisconsin Hmong Experiences with Hemodialysis. Author: Linda Krueger. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 157 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of Hmong hemodialysis patients and the nurses working with them. Two Midwestern Wisconsin hospitals with hemodialysis units were used as data collection sites. All Registered Nurses working in the dialysis unit with Hmong hemodialysis patients were invited to participate. All Hmong hemodialysis patients were invited to participate. Cooperation and assistance was obtained by the Hmong community. Questionnaires were distributed to the nurses and interviews were conducted with the Hmong hemodialysis patients. There were 17 nurses and four Hmong hemodialysis patients that participated in this study. The results indicated nurses use a variety of methods to learn about Hmong culture on their own, but overall they felt there was a lack of training for them on Hmong culture. They felt the Hmong hemodialysis patients were less compliant with their medication regimen and dietary fluid restriction but equally compliant with their hemodialysis treatment schedule compared to their non-Hrnong hemodialysis patients. These nurses identified several patient barriers were present: transportation, finances, family support, depression, and anxiety. Cultural challenges that were identified in working with Hmong hemodialysis patients included: communication, Hmong beliefs about treatment, beliefs about illness, and fears about treatment. The Hmong hemodialysis patients described experiencing profound sadness, weakness and uncertainty. They were sad that they had this chronic disease, that so much oftheir time was spent in dialysis, and that their lives were drastically changed. They described feeling fatigued and unable to participate in family, social, and clan activities. This also contributed to their sadness. Feelings ofuncertainty and fear related to life, death, dialysis, the future, and kidney transplant were identified. Recommendations to nurses, educators, administrators, and researchers were provided based on the results ofthis study. Future research is needed to explore this topic more completely.

Title: Hmong parents’ attitudes, perceptions of disability, and expectations of children with disabilities a
qualitative study of its impact on academic performance. Author: Mao Xiong. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2007. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 84 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Hmong, an ethnic group from Southeast Asia, are immigrants in the United States since 1975. As they adjust to western culture, parents have to set different expectations for their children. One major difference for Among in the U.S. is the opportunity to receive a free public education. Among parents strongly encourage higher education and expect children to do well, but for their children with disabilities, pursuing education after high school may not be a choice, The purpose of this qualitative study is to investigate what is expected of children with disabilities living in the United States and what he or she can achieve academically, based on the child and parent's goals and perspective and attitude of disabilities. Three Hmong children with disabilities and their parents from Eau Claire, WI were interviewed, The ages of the children were 18 and 19. Results found that Hmong parents tend to have a positive attitude toward individuals with disabilities and have hopes for their children with disabilities but have lower expectations for their children with disabilities than their children with no disabilities. All the Hmong parents want their children with disabilities to perform well . in school and half of them want their children to continue their education after high school. The other half believed it would be better for their children with disabilities to work after high school. Suggestions from children with disabilities and their parents to improve their education were also made.

Title: Perceptions and knowledge of Hmong high school students regarding mental health. Author: Zachary S. Secrist. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2006. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 42 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The Hmong people have a unique history of trials and tribulations juxtaposed with their ability to thrive as a small ethnic group in countries dominated by different ethnic majorities. From China to the United States, the Hmong have faced challenges to maintain their cultural identity. Now in the U.S., Hmong people face the challenges of adaptation and accommodation of trying to blend two cultures. This challenge is not just in the home and community, but also within schools. Hmong students face a myriad of issues surrounding school, home, social, and cultural expectation that can lead to academic difficulty, stress, and other mental health issues. Besides family, the educational setting plays one of the most important roles, not just in educating students, but also in helping to develop a sense of self and "place" in this world. Attempting to bridge the gap of living in two cultures, social pressures from parents and school, and wanting to be Americanized can leave a Hmong student feeling isolated and struggling to form an identity in American society. Hmong students need to have school professionals they can turn to for help and who can be advocates to help others learn about Hmong student struggles. School psychologists, counselors, social workers, and other school service staff should be keenly aware of their student population needs. It is important that mental health professionals and other school service staff be competent in the area of Hmong culture and Hmong student needs in order to provide them quality services. This literature review highlights key areas that need to be addressed in order for Hmong students to benefit from a full educational experience and suggests potential areas of future research. One possible area of inquiry could be to survey Hmong high school students to gain their perceptions regarding mental health and ethnic identity. Using a survey would be a way to begin the process of gaining a better understanding of Hmong student mental health awareness and needs. Such knowledge could have important implications for school mental health as well as other school service staff.

Title: Perceptions and knowledge that 7th and 8th grade Hmong students have of school guidance programs. Author: Ryan Sherman. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2004. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 46 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to see how 7th and 8th grade Hmong students perceive their school’s guidance department. Data was collected through the use of a survey that was administered to 35 stratified randomly selected 7th and 8th grade Hmong middle school students during the 2003-2004 school year in the Eau Claire Area School District. Everyday Hmong students are faced with having to live in two separate types of environments at school and in the Hmong culture. The expectations for both are different and theses students have to be able to function and be successful in both environments. The major differences between the cultures are language, social expectations, and family heritage. Many Hmong students are confused and need guidance to make it through these difficult yours of growth. The school’s guidance department is one area in the school that should be prepared to help with these issues. This study looked at the differences in culture and expectations for Hmong students at school and home and looked at how the students used the guidance department’s services to help them deal with their issues. The findings from this study revealed the needs of Hmong students, how they use the guidance department in their schools, and how teachers, administrators, and the community can more effectively meet their needs as they grow into adulthood. Results of the study will be used to help others understand what kind of struggles these students encounter and what can be done to help them.

Title: Factors leading Hmong youths to join gangs. Author: Kevin C. Lor. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2003. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 55 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This paper examines some of the elements that lead youth to join gangs. A questionnaire developed by the investigator was distributed to gang members and at-risk Hmong youth in two northern states. This questionnaire was developed in an attempt to assess some of the factors that have a high probability of leading youth to join gangs to compensate for what is lacking in Hmong youths' life. A 12-item questionnaire was developed and distributed to at-risk Hmong youths residing in two northern states. The questions were examined by calculating the percentage of males and females responding to different targeted areas. The questions were also examined to determine the internal validity between male and female subjects in responding to the different targeted areas.

Title: The Hmong culture kinship, marriage & family systems. Author: Teng Moua. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2003. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 61 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to describe the traditional Hmong kinship, marriage and family systems in the format of narrative from the writer’s experiences, a thorough review of the existing literature written about the Hmong culture in these three (3) categories, and two structural interviews of two Hmong families in the United States. This study only gives a general overview of the traditional Hmong kinship, marriage and family systems as they exist for the Hmong people in the United States currently. Therefore, it will not cover all the details and variations regarding the traditional Hmong kinship, marriage and family which still guide Hmong people around the world. Also, it will not cover the whole life course transitions such as childhood, adolescence, adulthood, late adulthood or the aging process or life core issues. This study is divided into two major parts: a review of literature and two interviews of the two selected Hmong families (one traditional & one contemporary) in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area. The two interviews of these two families from two different generations are to gain new perspectives of both what has changed, and what has remained the same in their beliefs and practices of the traditional Hmong kinship, marriage and family systems after living in the United States for more than eighteen (18) years. As the Hmong-American families, in general, continue to acculturate more and more into the American mainstream society and culture, the information collected from the two interviews will be used to suggest the trends of change in the beliefs and practices of the traditional Hmong kinship, marriage and family structures in the near future.

Title: A qualitative study examining the effects of polygyny on Hmong individuals who had been raised in polygynous households. Author: Manee Yang. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2003. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 71 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: In the late1970’s, Americans witnessed a large influx of immigrating groups of refugees, one of which was the Hmong. They brought foundational values of respecting hard work, elder leadership, patrilineal families, kinship, reciprocity, and the clan structure. These strong beliefs, taken into account with situational factors, contributed to some Hmong partaking in the long-sustained custom of cultural polygyny as a means for survival. Once seen as a necessity in Laos by some Hmong, it is unsure how many still believe in sustaining the custom in America. Polygamy has always remained a sensitive and controversial topic for the Hmong community. For these reasons, there has been very little research done on polygamy within the Hmong culture. The purpose of this research was to qualitatively examine whether polygamy has an effect on Hmong individuals and what these effects may be as reported by the participants.The researcher constructed a survey in Hmong and English, which servedas a framework for obtaining narratives from participants concerning their relationships with their fathers, mothers, fathers’ other wife, fathers’ other children, their viewpoints on polygyny, and advantages and disadvantages of being raised in a polygynous household. There were five participants in this study; all from the same Midwestern community, both female and male and ranging in age from late teens to over sixty-five years. Each interview was audiotaped and took approximately thirty minutes to complete, then, interviews were transcribed.

Title: Across the ocean the impact of immigration on Hmong women. Author: Kaying Lo. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2002. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 48 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Hmong women originally from Laos and Thailand are in constant transition due to their journey to America. They have been strong, often quiet, contributors to their families and people, and their strength continues despite the adversities of war and immigration. This researcher used a qualitative approach in seeking to understand the transitions ofHmong women’s lives in the United States. This phenomenological study was based on interviews with four Hmong women who spoke about the life changes they have faced due to immigration. Interviews were mainly derived from a snowball sample where the participants were friends or relatives of the researcher. Participants who were not immediately connected to the researcher were selected by recommendation of existing participants. The research question was: how has immigration into the United States changed Hmong Women’s lives within their families and culture?

Title: Combating racism, bigotry, and prejudice preliminary research for development of an oral history CD on the cultural heritage of Hmong Americans Plan B paper. Author: Kennedee Her. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2002. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 65 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Research indicates that in the last half century, the population of minority immigrants has been growing rapidly in the United States. Despite its growth, research indicates that racial andethnic discrimination is common in the United States (Duany, 1998). The objective of this preliminary study is to determine the factors of prejudice and discrimination against new immigrants in general and specifically to look at the prejudice anddiscrimination against the Hmong Americans. The focal point of this study is to gather data and recommendations from the focus group informants. The data then will be used to develop a multi-media (CD-ROM based) oral history on the cultural heritage of Hmong Americans, which will serve as an educational tool for individuals and the general public to be able to access to the Hmong culture, history, language, and arts. A Focus Group Interview Guide was used to guide and engage conversations with each individual’s interviews and the focus group interviews. The primary topics that will be explored and discussed during each interview session include Hmong culture and history. As the results, the factors of prejudice and discrimination against the Hmong Americans were due to the lack of cultural awareness, misinterpretation, language barrier, misjudgment, fault of assumptions, and/or rumors. The Hmong have faced the followingtypes of prejudice and discrimination: verbal harassment, poor services in organizational settings, physical harassment, avoidance in institutional settings, and police mistreatment. When the CD project is completed, it would serve as an educational key to combat racism, bigotry, and prejudice and discrimination. The result of this study highly corresponded to the hypothesis of the development of a CD that based on the cultural heritage of the Hmong Americans. The following topics were cited by the focus group informants as very important to put into the content of the CD, which include the Hmong culture, history, language, and arts.

Title: Hmong family processes and their impact on Hmong adolescents' delinquent behaviors a correlational study. Author: Shanie Xiong. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2002. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 82 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to provide an understanding of Hmong family processes and to examine the importance of individual parenting variables that impact Hmong adolescents’ delinquent behaviors. The family variables to be study are, parental attachment, parental monitoring, and parental discipline practices. In addition, levels of acculturation were measured since previous study has shown that the correlates of delinquent behaviors among members of differing cultural and ethnic groups may be related to unique factors. There were 52 Hmong adolescents from Menomonie, Eau Claire, Wisconsin and Saint Paul, Minneapolis, Minnesota who participated in the study. The research study survey instrument consisted of three parts: demographic information, four levels of acculturation, and forty items measuring family processes variables and delinquent behaviors. Results were analyzed by the SPSS-10.0 statistical package. Pearson Correlation indicated that there is a high negative correlation between parental attachment and delinquent behaviors (r = -.760**) and parental monitoring and delinquent behaviors (r = -.808**). A positive correlation exists for parental discipline practices and 3delinquent behaviors (r = .601**). There is a correlation between levels of acculturation and delinquent behaviors (mean = 2.93). Other data shows that participants’ father’s level of education and mother’s level of education was found to be related to levels of delinquent behaviors. Additionally, the length of time live in the United States was significant to level of delinquent behaviors among Hmong adolescents. Further research is necessary to provide more effective programs and services to Hmong adolescents and their parents to ensure that they will grow up to become competent and responsible citizens. Recommendations were made for this research to assist Hmong adolescents and their parents.

Title: Hmong students at UW-Stout factors influencing attendance and retention in a post secondary institution. Author: Melissa Crevier. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2002. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 82 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The Hmong are among a plethora of immigrating people who have left a land of solitary oppression to come to the United States for freedomand further opportunity. Although steeped in tradition, they left a land that persecuted them after the Vietnam War. It has been a difficult struggle for this people to settle into a culture so different and demanding in comparison to the traditions of their homeland. Now in America, they must adjust to a culture with a fluctuating economy and a society which values individual attainment. As do many immigrants that settle in the United States, the Hmong in general, value education, and understand that this is the key to their survival and success in the United States. The purpose of this study was to look at Hmong college students, currently enrolled at the University of Wisconsin-Stout in Menomonie, Wisconsin, to help determine factors that aided them in attending this post-secondary institution. Through the choice of an e-mailed or postal mail out survey, it specifically examined their experiences, secondary trends, programs which encouraged them to continue with college, support of family members and clans, effects of Wisconsin Works, a welfare reform program which began in 1997 and other factors that may have helped students choose UW-Stout as their college of choice. Furthermore, it will examine supportive factors that have aided Hmong students in succeeding and completing a post-secondary degree at UW-Stout.

Title: Hmong students' personal adjustment in American culture. Author: Li Shi. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2001. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 50 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to gather information relative to Hmong culture and Hmong youth's personal adjustment in the American school system. A twenty-five-item interview was conducted with eight Hmong students in grades 7-12 in a public school district in Minnesota. The findings of the study showed that the educators' teaching techniques, positive attitude about the students and knowledge of the students' culture influenced the students' adjustment at school. Social support, students' sociality, and age at time of arrival in the U.S also influenced the students' adjustment. English proficiency and high self-esteem were also associated with the participating Hmong students' performance at school. The participating students' length of residency in the U.S. was not related to their adjustment. No gender differences were found. Further research with a larger sample size is recommended.

Title: The Hmong a human resource transition. Author: Suzanne C. Dirks. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2000. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 41 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The Hmong are an ancient people, but their Diaspora has proven them tobe an adaptable people. Change does take time and for the Hmong high schoolgraduates change has placed them between two worlds. One is of the ancientthird world country of their ancestors and traditions. The other is a world basedon a fluctuating economy, where access to success is gained through literacy andeducation. Their generation is a pivotal one that can aid this ancient people withacculturation into the United States community. The purpose of this research is tostudy the 1992, 1994 and 1996 Hmong graduates of Wausau East and West highschools. The study will look for relationships among the graduates to find any post-secondary trends, employment plans, encouragement of family and clans intheir educational plans, and the citizenship status of the students and parents.Assimilation can cause a loss ancestral traditions so the study will also look at thegraduate's knowledge and retention of their native language.

Title: Hmong parent education and involvement and its impact on children a correlational study. Author: Christopher A. Bondioli. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2000. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The presence of the Hmong population in the United States has brought up many issues and concerns since they began immigrating here shortly after their tragic loss ofthe Vietnam War. Among these concerns is the area of education. The language barrier has presented many challenges for the Hmong with their education. The researcher believes a thorough understanding of the Hmong background and their life in the United States can be beneficial in assessing their needs in improving their education. Parents were assessed in this study from a survey developed by the researchersupplying insight on Hmong parents and their involvement and influence on their children in education. Children were assessed by using the Standardized Test for Assessment of Reading (STAR). The parent and children data were then correlated to provide the findings for the study. Results from this study show that a positive correlation exists between parent education level, parents providing homework assistance for their kids, the amount of English spoken in the home, and the number of years living in the United States with the students’ grade equivalency scores (GES) on the STAR.

Title: Perception of early marriage and future educational goals attainment for Hmong female adolescents. Author: Mana Vue. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 2000. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 69 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The main purpose of this study is to examine the correlational study on perception of early marriage and future educational goals for Hmong female adolescents. The participants were a convenience sample consisting of 40 respondents drawn from St. Paul, MN, Eau Claire and Menomonie, WI.The respondents range from age 14 to 19 years old. A fifty-two item questionnaire regarding perception of early marriage and future educational goals that includes demographic questions,opinion type questions regarding early marriage and future educational goals using a Likert Scale response, and rankings. A significant difference was found when there is a positive perception of early marriage and lower educational goals for the respondents. This research also found that even though respondents' parents may not be educated the respondents still have high educational goals.No significant difference was found for educational goals for married and single female respondents. The study also further show that married respondents without children will have higher educational goals when compare to married respondents with children. Included in theresearch paper are counseling implications and future research recommendations.

Title: The availability of adequate educational support programs for Southeast Asians as English as a second language students in Wausau East High School. Author: Frank Chua Vang. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1999. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 52 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This research examined the availability of adequate educational support programs for Southeast Asian English as a Second Language students in Wausau East High School. There are approximately 250 Southeast Asian students enrolled at Wausau East High School. A primary concern in Southeast Asian communities is that educational support should be provided on mainstream levels. Otherwise, ESL students may not succeed with their educational goals.

Title: An examination of gangs in Eau Claire, Wisconsin and the community's racial perception of gangs. Authors: Mary Beth Higgins and Ka Vang. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1999. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 59 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study is two-fold: to examine the racial, gender, and ethnic makeup of gangs in Eau Claire, Wisconsin and to study the community's perception of gangs. The results of this study will be shared with the Eau Claire School District and the Eau Claire Police Department to assist in combatting the gang problem in Eau Claire.

Title: Hmong youth attitudes toward early marriage. Author: Chusee Vue. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1999. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 73 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine the attitude of Hmong youth towards early marriage. The subjects of this study were 50 Hmong youth from Dunn County who were attending middle and high school in Menominee, WI. A total of 50 surveys were distributed and 43 students participated in the study.

Title: An investigation of Hmong students' performance on four standardized cognitive ability measures. Author: Jodi Preston. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1999. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 39 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This study investigated the parameters of a valid assessment of cognitive ability for students of Hmong origin who were referred for suspected exceptional educational needs. The sample consisted of 56 Hmong students aged 6 years 4 months to 13 years 0 months.

Title: An investigation of Hmong students' performance on four standardized cognitive ability measures. Author: Jennifer Xiong. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1999. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 102 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This study explored obstacles to higher education for Hmong high school students. The objectives of the study were to 1. Describe the attitudes Hmong students have toward setting career goals. 2. Identify behaviors Hmong students experience as it relates to their aspirations and expectations. 3. Describe perceptions Hmong students have concerning obstacles to their career aspirations.

Title: English proficiency level correlated with cumulative grade point average for selected Southeast Asian students by gender, grade level, and birthplace. Author: Debra M. Marsh. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 36 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: A statistical analysis was done using a sample of 163 Southeast Asian students exploring the correlation between Grade Point Average and Limited English Proficiency as well as how GPA and LEP level might be impacted by gender, grade level and birthplace.

Title: Hmong high school students' attitudes and aspirations toward education. Author: Xiong A. Lo. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 47 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This study of Hmong high school students' attitudes toward high school graduation as well as their aspirations for higher education at the post-secondary level was conducted, to determine, what, if any, differences exist between gender, academic classifications, socio-economic duration of staying in America, and academic achievement in regards to self-reported attitudes and aspirations.

Title: Hmong parents attitude and perception toward Hmong juvenile delinquency in America. Author: Tou K. Vang. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 70 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to understand the Hmong parents' attitude and perception toward juvenile delinquency in the Eau Claire Area Hmong community.

Title: Hmong perception and behaviors regarding shamanic practice and western medicine. Author: See Vang. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 68 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This study explores the attitudes and behaviors of the Hmong residents in the Eau Claire and Menominee, WI areas toward the use of traditional Hmong shamanic practices and western medical practices. The purpose of this study focused on how the Hmong people perceive their traditional shamanic practices and western medical practices.

Title: Parental influences and academic success of Hmong adolescent students is there a relationship? Author: Song Lor. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 80 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This study examined the relationship of parental involvement, acculturation level, parent educational level and academic success among Hmong adolescent students. Thirty students from Saint Paul and Menominee, WI participated in the study. The survey instrument used for the study included completion of an acculturation level scale along with a parent involvement questionnaire for each parent and student.

Title: The relationship between crime and depression within the Wausau area Hmong youth community. Author: Yang, Tong S. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 54 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This research study investigated the level of difference in depression between Hmong youths who have a history of criminal activities and those who do not have a history of criminal activity. All participants were 12 to 18 year old Hmong youth from the Wausau area.

Title: Where they are now the second follow-up study of the 1992 college-bound Hmong graduates. Author: Youa Xiong. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Location: Menominee, WI. Year: 1998. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 63 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: Attaining an education can lead to the independence of the Hmong people. A large number of Hmong men and women from the Wausau area have gone on to college after high school to acquire a degree in a career that will ensure a better life for their children's future. This study is the second followup study of a 1992 Hmong senior college-bound graduating class.

Other Theses/Dissertations

Title: Acculturation in a Community Garden: The Shifting Role of a Hmong Garden in Eastern Wisconsin. Author: James Arthur Misfeldt. Source: MA Thesis, University of Alabama. Location: Tuscaloosa, AL. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 93 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Sheboygan, Wisconsin is a small midwestern city that is home to a community garden that has been kept by a Hmong immigrant community for more than 30 years. This thesis uses a cultural geographic approach to present an ethnography of Sheboygan’s Hmong community garden. This ethnography addresses convergent knowledge gaps in the literature on immigration in the United States, Hmong studies, and the political ecology of urban commons. It is presented that the interrelated processes of acculturation and neoliberalization have shaped the garden and those who use it. Acculturation is an important determining factor in how members of Sheboygan’s Hmong community perceive the garden and the expansion of neoliberal policy in Sheboygan has been shaped by individuals’ relationships with it. These relationships, as well as power relationships in Sheboygan, are explored in the narrative of an event that led to the garden’s 2015 move.

Title: Arresting Vang Pao: Nativism, Immigration and Foreign Policy in American History. Author: Tyler D. Rust. Source: MA Thesis, California State University, East Bay. Location: Hayward, CA. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 134 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (From the Introduction): The arrest of Vang Pao was just a brief story I heard on the radio while I was driving, many years ago. At the time I was not yet a student in graduate school, working towards a Masters in History. I was a social studies teacher, thinking more about the constant dramas and stresses involved with running a classroom every day, full of adolescents and their helicopter parents, trying to instill more than just the knowledge of names, dates, and places that history class is infamous for doing.As I drove along, the radio announced the ATF raid on Hmong homes all across California, part of a sting operation that revealed a plot to overthrow the Laotian government. Now my ears pricked up. I knew the Hmong only from Clint Eastwood’s movie, GranTorino, which followed the plight of a young boy trying to fit in and survivesurrounded by gangs. His cratchtey neighbor, played by Eastwood, helped him to grow tobe independent and fight for himself, a journey that transforms both the boy and Eastwood’s character. When the radio mentioned a coup, I was intrigued because revolution is always interesting to a social studies teacher, and one that had started in California was even more interesting because I was living in California at the time.The report explained that a Laotian general had been arrested after meeting with undercover agents from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) to negotiatethe sale of military weapons. The guns, bombs and rockets involved in the sale were to beused to overthrow of the Laotian government. After meeting in a Thai restaurant in Sacramento, the General and his co-conspirators had been accused of violating the Neutrality Act, which made it illegal to overthrow a government from within the United States. At the time I found it interesting, but not compelling. I remembered thinking, “Who does that? And who does that from Sacramento? Nothing happens in Sacramento.”And then I went back to thinking about the other, more important problems of my day, not to think again about this story for many, many years.When I decided to return to graduate school for my second Master’s degree, my first having been for teaching, I took a class in the history of American immigration. The course introduced me to the histories of many groups who had come to the United States, seeking a better life for themselves and their future generations. The histories had many similarities; the push and pull factors of immigration, but also in the experiences that the groups inevitably had to walk through as they acclimated to a new life in the United States. The arrest of General Vang Pao and the Hmong came back to me during that class; an example of immigration and assimilation. The experience of the Hmong was notunlike the Chinese, Japanese, Cuban and other immigrant groups. Each of these peoples had struggled to adjust to life inside the United States because of push and pull factors in their decision to relocate. Furthermore, the strong desire to return to Laos, seeking justicefor long ago failures and suffering, seemed evidence that assimilation is never complete; that identity cannot be easily transformed merely because the person or persons have relocated geographically. Identity, citizenship, nationalism and violence were all present in the story of Vang Pao and the Hmong refugees. Their arrest in Sacramento seemed a story needing to be told, as the immigration debate was becoming more politically hot, and this gave increased relevance to issues obvious within the arrest of Vang Pao.

Title: Les Hmong et le tourisme ethnique à Sa Pa : entre modernité et micro-résistances. Author: Antoine Garnier. Source: MA Thesis, Laval University. Location: Quebec City, Canada. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 204 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (English Translation from French): Since 1986, Vietnam has undergone an economic renovation (Đổi mới in Vietnamese), resulting in many political consequences. This opening to the neo-liberal market economy, inspired by decisions made in China a few years sooner, does not yet stop the Vietnamese Communist Party, as the true head of the country, from governing in an authoritarian and socialist manner. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is thus a hybrid state, pushed towards a modernization process with Western afternotes, thanks to its neo-liberal allegiances. In this race for development, Vietnam faces a singular challenge : it must deal with a total of fifty-four official ethnicities living inside its borders. Yet, Vietnamese power is, in all its aspects, essentially related to the ethnic majority, namely the Kinh, or Viet. In order to bring modernity to the minority nationalities, considered as "little brothers", the Kinh state then organizes ethnicity around a grand principle of selective cultural preservation. Minority nationalities can thus show their singular identities, provided they do so in a benign and essentially esthetic fashion, deprived of any potential danger for the state goals aiming at unified national identity and modernity. This thesis is based on an ethnographic investigation conducted throughout the summers of 2016 and 2017, among the people of one of these minority nationalities : the Hmong living in the Sa Pa district, in the North of Vietnam. In order to give this research a pertinent theoretical anchor, I draw my analysis from concepts such as micro-resistance and infrapolitics, devised by James Scott and utilized by Jean Michaud in his many works regarding the Hmong living in Sa Pa. Thanks to these notions, I analyse how certain transcripts produced by Hmong taking part in touristic activities in the Sa Pa district can be interpreted as examples of micro-resistance, enabling them to shape a singular place for their community in this rapidly evolving context, pulled between modernity and resistance.

Title: A cycle of violence: Hmong refugees, household decisions, economic transnationalism, and identities. Author: Chia Xiong. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of California, Merced. Location: Merced, CA. Year: 2019. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 219 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The question of citizenship and belonging continues to be important in an era of mass displacement as a result of violence and conflict. This dissertation is an interdisciplinary approach in examining the question of belonging and citizenship for war refugees. I examine how war refugees belong and do not belong in different periods: from the journey to “refuge,” in the refugee camps, and the current resettled country. Each chapter in this dissertation addresses a specific question. In Chapter Two, I ask, how do gender and age shape refugee journeys? Chapter Three addresses the question, how does time shape refugees’ participation in economic transnationalism? And Chapter Four addresses the question, how does previous war experience (captured through refugee identity) in conjunction with current experiences (legal status, view on America/n) shape belonging (ethnic and racial identities)?

The Hmong from Laos makes a good case study because they have been in the U.S. for four decades. Their duration in the U.S. is long enough that they can take on new legal statuses but recent enough that they can still recall war experiences. The study consists of a total of 50 semi-structured life history interviews with refugee adult children and refugee parents. Adult children refer to participants who were children during the war or lived in refugee camps, and at the time of the study are adults.

There are three main findings. One, gender and age shape the decisions during the journey to refuge in Thailand. Further, the new economic household decision theory can be expanded to examine refugees if the reasons for migration shift from economic incentives to interests in preserving human life. Two, transnationalism can also be used to understand refugee participation in the global economy through economic transnationalism, namely through sending goods to sell and remittances. I show that Hmong participated in the alternative global market by sending paj ntaub to sell in the United States. This economic transnationalism is made possible through what I consider involuntary transnational networks that consist of other refugees who are mostly kin. I argue that participation in the global economy occurs not only once the Hmong are in the resettled society, but even when they are residing in refugee camps. However, the commodification of the paj ntaub represents cultural violence that justifies the structural violence within the camps. Three, I find that refugee experiences of war continue to permeate into the present, shaping ethnic and racial identities. Specifically, identification with the refugee identity reflects the present attachment to previous war experiences. And detachment from the refugee identity is a coping mechanism to treating war experiences as something of the past. Participants coped with war experience differently, but most identified as Hmong as opposed to a hyphenated or American identity. Therefore, many respondents saw themselves as American citizens, but not as full Americans. I term this notion of simultaneous belonging and not belonging as social liminality. Finally, those who are too young to understand or recall the experiences of war identify more with a hyphenated or racial identity and never saw or no longer see themselves as refugees. Collectively, this dissertation underscores Hmong refugees’ belonging before they became refugees (in the journey to Thailand), when they are refugees (camps) and when they become citizens (in the U.S.).

Title: Facilitators and barriers to employment among Hmong American young adult men with mental illness: a qualitative study. Author: Kevin Bengston. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Location: Madison, WI. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 121 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The prevalence of mental illness among Hmong Americans is estimated to be close to 33.5% as opposed to 17.9% found in the general U.S. population based on the findings of several research studies and estimates from the NIMH. The high prevalence of mental health and mental health stigma has also lead to Hmong Americans experiencing greater difficulties in obtaining and retaining employment. Although no data wasavailable on the specific unemployment or underemployment rates of Hmong Americans with mental illness, their current labor force participation in comparison to the rest of the U.S. population sheds some light on the difficulties that Hmong Americans have had in attempting to obtain employment.Despite the fact that Hmong Americans’ labor force participation has been improved over the past two decades, it still lags behind the rest of the civilian U.S. population –only 56% of Hmong Americans are employed as opposed to 65% of the U.S. Civilian labor force. Although the levels of employment have increased over the past two decades the per capita income of Hmong Americans at $11,766 is significantly lower than the overall U.S. population per capita income at $26,279 leading to higher rates of poverty and a higher reliance on public assistance. Employment is considered essential to an individual’s identity and provides pathways to community engagement and participation. Employment can also lead to higher levels of self-esteem, increased overall subjective well-being, and decreased levels of depression, anxiety, and alcohol consumption for personswith mental illness. Despite the noted importance of employment for persons of mental illness no research has been undertaken to understand the facilitators Hmong American males with mental illness may utilize or the barriers they face in obtaining and retaining employment.No research has explored the role that stigma and intergenerational trauma play in the employment process for Hmong adult males with mental ivhealth issues. Additionally, there is very limited knowledge regarding employment issues relatedto Hmong Americans with disabilities and no research has been specifically undertaken with Hmong American males.The purpose of this qualitative research study was to understand the facilitators, barriers, stigma, and intergenerational trauma experienced by Hmong adult men ages 18 to 35 years old with mental health issues residing in Wisconsin when attempting obtain and retain employment.Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with eight Hmong American males with mental health issues between the ages of 18 and 35 years of age. Six participants self-identified as having depression and two as having anxiety. One participant self-identified as having both depression and anxiety. None of the participants identified as having severe mental illness and all the participants in this study could be considered “high functioning”.A phenomenological qualitative research framework, with a hermeneutic phenomenological approach was used to interpretthe experiencesof the participants. Co-cultural theory was used as aconceptual framework to further theoretically informed analysis of the qualitative data and answer the principle research question (“How do young adult Hmong males with mental health issues navigate and experience finding employment in Wisconsin?”). Tworesearch team members of Hmong descent wererecruited to assist withthis study. Both grew up within Hmong American communities in Wisconsin and have an intimate understanding of Hmong culture. Additionally, both speak two different forms of Hmong dialect (Hmoob Dawg or “Hmong White” and Hmoob Ntsuab or “Hmong Green”), can read the Hmong language, and have experience working with persons who have mental health issues.The six stages of hermeneutic data analysis as developed by Ajjawi & Higgs (2007): Immersion, Understanding, Abstraction, Synthesis and Theme Development, Illumination and vIllustrating the Phenomena, Critique of the Themes by the Researcherwere used as a process to uncover the facilitators, barriers, and stigma experienced by Hmong American males with mental health issuesto obtain and retain employment. Seven major themes identified indicate that Hmong culture and extended family play significant roles in the employment process for the participants in this study acting as both a facilitators and barriers. There also appears to be a significant level of “bi-cultural” stress being experienced by many of the participants in this study that has inadvertently has affected their overall mental well-being, leading to difficulty finding long-term employment. Co-cultural theory was used to further theoretically inform and interpret the findings for this research study. From the eight interviews undertaken it is apparent that for the participants in this study their preferred outcome is accommodationor trying to maintain their cultural uniqueness within the broader American societyResults of this study indicate it would seem important to utilize Hmong American mental health counselors, rehabilitation counselors, and employment specialists where possible. Mental health, vocational rehabilitation, and other employment providers also need to be sensitive to potential family and cultural obligations that Hmong males are obligated to undertake in their community. In addition, counselors need to be sensitive to how gender roles affect the way Hmong males are obligated to communicate with each other and how it may impact the way certain Hmong clients interact when receiving Western mental health, vocational rehabilitation, or other employment services. Counselors also need to be aware how intergenerational stress may impact some Hmong American clients. Additionally, counselors need to be aware of the role that stigma and lack of understanding can play around mental illness with Hmong Americans. It appears that having a more in-depth understanding as to the stereotypes, prejudice, viand discrimination that Hmong people experience within the broader American society would assist counselors in helping Hmong people develop better workplace communication and socialization skills. Lastly, developing culturally sensitive outreach strategies would encourage Hmong people to utilize health, rehabilitation, and social services.

Title: Hmong livelihood strategies : factors affecting hunting, agriculture, and non-timber forest product collection in central Laos. Author: Pao Vue. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Location: Madison, WI. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 361 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The Hmong are the third most populous ethnic group in Laos and tend to live near areas with important conservation values where they engage in swidden agriculture, hunting,and the collection of various kinds of non-timber forest products for both subsistence and commercial purposes. However, their livelihood strategies are currently undergoing drastic changes due to a range of factors that are making it harder year after year for them to meet household needs. This research investigates how government laws and policies designed to decrease swidden agriculture, the capitalistic market economy, and technological advancements are affecting how the Hmong in central Laos spatially navigate and use the surrounding lands to sustain and/or enhance their livelihoods. By examining how these factors are affecting Hmong livelihood strategies, I seek to exposevariables that are contributing to the already heavy hunting and non-timber forest products usage by the Hmong ethnic group. I primarily conducted intensive ethnographic research which documentedHmong villagers’ daily livelihood activities in order to understand how beliefs and practicesare produced, modified, and re-produced to allow forcontinual swidden agriculture, wildlife hunting, and the harvest of non-timber forest products. I found that, among various factors,government laws and policies aimed at protecting the forests and biodiversityhave beenimportant forincreasinghuntingand natural resource use in some partsof central Laos. My field work also revealed that technological advancements are renderingsome cultural traditional Hmong beliefs that historically promoted forest and biodiversity conservation less influential, which in turn is also leading toincrease hunting and resource use. Overall, my research enhances our understanding of the relationship between government policies, technological advancements, and the environmentand how they are influence by thecapitalistic market economy and discourses associated with ideasof modernization.

Title: Exploring Livelihood Change in a Rural Hmong Upland Village in Yunnan, China. Author: Charles Solberg. Source: MA Thesis, McGill University. Location: Montreal, Canada. Year: 2018. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 149 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: In Southwest China's geopolitical frontier, ethnic minority communities struggle to create sustainable livelihoods while being increasingly drawn into the state's gaze and expected to 'be modern' in specific ways. Here, communities function on the edge of state power, cultural politics, and economic margins. In the midst of an agrarian transition, remotely located minority farmers now need cash income for farming inputs that were previously found organically on-farm, as well as for relatively new schooling, health, and transportation costs. Concurrently, 'getting ahead' increasingly involves striving to 'be Han', while shedding ethnic minority identities. Focusing on this agrarian transition and the dilemmas it has raised for ethnic minority communities, this thesis is rooted in ethnographic fieldwork in a minority Hmong (Miao) village of 300 people in Wenshan prefecture, on the Sino-Vietnamese border. The aim of my thesis is: To complete an ethnographic investigation of everyday livelihoods in a rural upland Hmong village in Wenshan prefecture, Yunnan, China, with the purpose of examining to what degree village livelihoods have changed (if at all) over the past 20 years. This is addressed through three research questions: 1) What have been the most important livelihood changes in the village over the past 20 years, and what broad factors have driven these changes?; 2) Focusing on contemporary livelihoods in the village, how are livelihood portfolios being created today and what are their key components? and 3) How are villagers responding to outside state policies and other potential drivers of change, and are they resisting in specific ways and why? Fieldwork for this thesis was completed during summer 2017 and included overt participant observation; unstructured, semi-structured interviews, and walk along interviews; and oral histories. I utilize a conceptual framework drawing from political ecology, sustainable livelihoods, hegemony and resistance, and negotiating legitimacy. In my analysis chapters I explore how Hmong villagers have coped with the pressures of an agrarian transition and modernization processes, and highlight the role circular labor migration has played in reshaping local livelihoods, customary practices, and family structures for those 'left behind'. 2012I find that culturally rooted local livelihoods continue to be placed front and center of household ambitions, albeit with a specific modern struggle. As such, Hmong farmers blend state expectations with cultural norms to create their own frontier cultural project.

Title: Literacy events and practices that position Hmong women to meet academic success in community colleges. Author: Jody C. Koch. Source: E.d.D Dissertation, Iowa State University. Location: Ames, IA. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 160 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This study examined the literacy events and practices of Hmong women achieving academic success at a community college. Three women participants were interviewed regarding their past and present literacy events and practices. In addition, each participant took photographs of their own literacy events for five weeks. The photographs provided additional material for further discussion during the interviews. The study was designed as a collective case study in order to explore each participant's literacy practices and compare across cases. Coding was first conducted deductively, separating literacy events from literacy practices. Then each primary code was subjected to a second around of coding. Literacy events were also deductively coded, according to the narrative methods of situation, continuity, and place. Literacy practices were inductively coded to draw forth themes within each case. Findings indicate participants used literacy to meet school objectives, aid in learning, facilitate verbal interactions, affirm identity, and achieve goals. A combination of these literacy practices and cultural wealth helped these participants achieve academic success at the community college level. Implications for culturally responsive teaching are discussed.

Title: Rewriting Hmong womanhood: literacy that mediates borders. Author: Kaia Lea Simon. Source: E.d.D Dissertation, University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana. Location: Champaign, IL. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 193 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: In “Rewriting Hmong Womanhood,” I argue that the revision of cultural gender roles for migrant women comes about through relocating literacies: moving family and home literacies across borders to public spaces such as schools, workplaces, and political realms while also using those same literacies to stay connected to their diasporic community. This dissertation addresses questions related to how literacy transforms cultural gender roles as it also speaks to the more broad changes that occur when widespread literacy is introduced to a migrant group. To make this case, I draw from an ethnographic study of twenty-three women who are daughters of the first generation of Hmong refugees relocated to the US after the Vietnam War. This study reveals the mechanisms by which migrant families, who many would assume have so-called “low literacy,” support high literate achievement for their daughters. These daughters then carry, apply, translate, and leverage these literate practices—relocating them, in other words—in order to establish unprecedented access to individual identities, a public presence, and economic upward mobility. The women I interviewed described the ways that literacy supported their desires to prioritize heritage cultural practices as it also inspired them to forge new paths for Hmong women. For example, several women described to me their desire to leave home to attend college, and the ways they leveraged their knowledge of institutional literacies to make it possible; at the same time, they leveraged their skills as child language brokers to always remain on the right side of complying with their parents’ wishes. By identifying such moments where they relocate family literacies across public and domestic borders, this dissertation chronicles microprocesses of social transformation as these women use literacy to enact their desires to neither fully rebel nor fully comply with traditional gender roles. Instead, literacy offers them the ability to find new ways: to rely on family literacies as they adopt new ones, always moving between heritage, tradition, and assimilation as they occupy public spaces previously denied to them. The result is a revision of gendered expectations for Hmong women in the US.

Title: Carrying the Seeds: Adaptations and Transitions of Hmong American Food Producers in Missoula County, Montana. Author: Rachel Cramer. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Montana. Location: Missoula, MT. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 106 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Forty years after the initial resettlement of Hmong refugees in Missoula County, Montana, the Hmong American community has undergone significant agricultural and cultural adaptations. Today, there are about 200 Hmong Americans in the county, less than 2% of the population (US Census Bureau 2010), but they make up around 40%of the farmers’ market produce vendors. The thesis demonstrates that, while agriculture has played a central role in helping Hmong refugees adapt, its role is becoming more symbolic as the second generation develops an identity less connected to growing and selling food. Through a qualitative research approach using 19 in-depth interviews, the thesis examineshow these participants and their familiesadapted to growing and selling food in western Montana during the initial resettlement years. It also investigates current agricultural and marketing challenges and strategies, and the role of agriculture in maintaining traditions. Throughout all of these agricultural and cultural adaptations, strong kinship and co-ethnic networks have increased their adaptive capacity. While themotivations to grow and sell food are diverse and have changed over time,one of the primary motivationsis tomaintain these networks. Lastly, the thesis explores whether the second generation of Hmong Americans intend to continue growing and selling food in the future, and how this decision may affect both personal and cultural identity.

Title: Combating structural racialization in the agriculture industry : a case study of Hmong social capital and collective entrepreneurship in the Twin Cities, MN region. Author: Lindsay M. Hill. Source: M.S.Thesis, University of Missouri, Columbia. Location: Columbia, MO. Year: 2017. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 93 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Throughout the United States, the agriculture industry has witnessed a demographic shift in its farming population- becoming older, more white, and dominated by men. It, therefore, is imperative that we seek to understand the causes and implications of this trend, especially for populations that may be excluded from market entry in this industry. Drawing on the literatures of ethnic enclaves, social networks, social capital, collective action, and collective entrepreneurship, this research project conducts a case study of the impact of structural racialization in the U.S. agriculture industry on the entrepreneurial opportunities facing the Hmong community in the Twin Cities, Minnesota region. It finds socially disadvantaged farmers, like the Hmong growers of the Twin Cities, face significant structural challenges in engaging in agricultural production on a small-scale. Additionally, this research argues the presence of an entrepreneurial organization working in pursuit of collective action and cooperative behavior is essential to combating the industry's structural challenges and promoting the success of the individual entrepreneurs of color who operate within the mainstream economy.

Title: Mental Health Experiences within the Hmong American LGBTQ Community: A Qualitative Research Project. Author: James Her. Source: M.S Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle. Location: Seattle, WA. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 26 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This qualitative research project explores the life experiences of six second-generation Hmong Americans individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, queer, or questioning (LGBTQ). The six participants live in diverse regions of the United States (U.S.) and range in age from 18 to 40 years. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted via phone. Participants were asked to share stories of the struggles they have encountered as sexual minorities in their communities, and their experiences of dealing with mental health concerns in the Hmong community and within the U.S. healthcare system at large. The findings provide social workers and other healthcare providers with information to better support members of the Hmong LGBTQ community, to address their mental health needs, and to improve mental health outcomes with this vulnerable and growing population. This study aims to begin to fill a gap in the academic literature by providing insights into the unique challenges that LGBTQ Hmong Americans often encounter in the U.S.

Title: Educational attainment of second generation Hmong in a rural ethnic enclave. Author: Marianne C. Paiva. Source: PhD Dissertation, Kansas State University. Location: Manhattan, KS. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 138 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This study investigates the role of second-generation Hmong in South Oroville in order to better understand broader questions of racial and ethnic integration among immigrants in rural areas of the U.S., the role of education in rural community viability, and the sustainability of rural communities with population growth derived mainly from immigration. I focus on two fundamental questions: Why are second-generation Hmong in South Oroville exceeding expectations for educational attainment, despite high levels of poverty and low levels of first generation educational attainment? How do second generation Hmong in South Oroville use their education? I draw on 16 qualitative interviews with second generation Hmong Americans in South Oroville to explore these questions.There are two key findings. First, the high college attainment rate was due to a high level of social integration with strong social ties within their networks, unique bridging through Upward Bound between the dominant society and the Hmong population, high parental expectations and high sibling expectations of educational attainment, and high amounts of financial support from grants and work study facilitated a 70% college attainment rate in 18-24 year olds in the population. Second, the Carr-Kefalas brain drain theory did not fully explain the post-education pathways for this population. An alternative theory of post-education pathways called the Hmong Typology explains post-education as dependent on gender expectations and sibling obligation.

Title: Entangled lives : reproduction and continuity in a Denver Hmong community. Author: Don B. DuPrez. Source: Ph.D Dissertation, University of Edinburgh. Location: London, England. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 274 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The history of the Hmong migration as refugees from Laos to the United States reveals a situation whereby the Hmong have been confronted with various political, economic, religious, and social forces that have dramatically shaped their lives. Over the past 35 years, the Denver Hmong’s exposure to cosmopolitan urban centres and rural ways of life in Colorado have continued to influence and develop the character and practices of the community. Within this social and cultural milieu, numerous and contentious views regarding health, community, family, and the reproduction of family have remained entangled within the moral and ethical foundations of Christian faiths and traditional shamanic practices. Furthermore, these perspectives of community and family are enmeshed within a Hmong ethos of continuity that is derived from historical strategies and experiences from Laos and the refugee camps of Thailand. Within the Denver Hmong community, the moral foundations of spiritual practices and a pronounced emphasis on continuity have continued to uphold the idea of family as a central tenant to being Hmong. In doing so, this has further emphasised various degrees of entanglement and mutual reliance within and between families and individuals. As a result, significant pressure has been placed on younger Hmong to strengthen the networks of family, extended family, and community by reproducing and forming families of their own. The production and reproduction of family has in turn drawn into focus generational tensions concerning ideas of family, education, gender, expectations of behaviour, and approaches to health and healing. In consideration of these points, this thesis examines how people within the Denver Hmong community negotiate, maintain, and contest the intersection of these matters while constructing and maintaining the central tenants of Hmong life and a Hmong continuity through the reciprocal reproductive qualities of the social, the spiritual and symbolic, and the biological.

Title: Perceptions of Hmong Parents in a Hmong American Charter School : a Qualitative Descriptive Case Study On Hmong Parent Involvement. Author: Kirk T. Lee. Source: E.d.D Dissertation, Portland State University. Location: Portland, OR. Year: 2016. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 190 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Parental involvement plays an essential role in the United States (U.S.) educational system. However, parental involvement poses many challenges for Hmong parents in American schools. Many assumptions are made on the parts of teachers, staff, and Hmong parents about parents' roles pertaining to their involvement in their children's education. Hmong parents struggle to reconcile beliefs, attitudes, and values that they bring with them from Laos with the expectations found in the U.S. due to their unfamiliarity with the U.S. educational system. This study employed the used a qualitative, descriptive case study approach to examine the perceptions of Hmong parents involvement at a K-6 Hmong American charter school in Northern California. The primary data collection method used in this study was interviews with four school-community stakeholder groups. The purposeful-selected interview participants included two administrators, four teachers, six parents, and four students. The interviews were dialogically coded and nine themes were developed related to parental involvement. These nine themes were: communication with parents, committee involvement, flexibility of staff, enrichment programs non-traditional school schedule, importance of field trips, cultural events and presence of other cultures, recommend school to others, and positive behavioral reinforcement. The study concludes with a presentation of the implications of the nine themes on the design of parent involvement models and recommendations are offered related to policies and connected strategies for how to design culturally relevant supports for parent involvement in education.

Title: Yielding to high yields: hybrid maize and Hmong food security in Hà Giang Province, Northern Vietnam. Author: Victoria Kyeyune. Source: M.A. Thesis, McGill University. Location: Montreal, Canada. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 176 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: In the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, maize is grown nationally as the primary source of livestock feed. It also represents the preferred substitute for rice among people in rural and upland regions. Since 1991, the Vietnamese government has supported the introduction and subsidization of hybrid maize seeds for domestic production, particularly as a component of agricultural development policies to improve food security of upland ethnic minority populations. Due in part to subsidies and propaganda, hybrid varieties have been widely adopted by farmers to replace lower yield traditional and open pollinated varieties. This thesis aims to determine how upland Hmong households in Ha Giang province, northern Vietnam, are adaptingto the introduction of state-supported hybrid maize seeds. This question is addressed using a conceptual framework built on sustainable livelihoods, food security, and gender analysis literature. I conducted ethnographic fieldwork in the remotest district of Dong Van primarilyusing conversational and oral history interviews with Hmong householders, and semi-structured interviews with agricultural extension officers, state officials, and NGO representatives. I find that Hmong food systems rely heavily on maize, and Hmong livelihood portfolios are geared towards income generation through livestock and maize alcohol. Livelihood outcomes ofadoption include higher yields, yet participants highlight various drawbacks, including limitedstorage stability and increased reliance on cash to afford seeds and associated chemical inputs.Further, the preference for taste of local maize leads some households to resist full adoption ofnew hybrid varieties and direct hybrid maize to livestock feed and alcohol production. I argue that food security interventions must move beyond conceptualizing food security as a result of food availability alone, but also incorporate cultural acceptability of food, an understanding of hybrid maize cultivation challenges, and the local seed diversity on which livelihoods and food security rely.

Title: Current Hmong Perceptions of their Speaking, Reading, and Writing Ability and Cultural Values as Related to Language and Cultural Maintenance. Author: Vicky Xiong-Lor. Source: E.d.D Dissertation, California State University, Fresno. Location: Fresno, California. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 196 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The literature showed that one language is lost every 2 weeks, and that by the end of the 21st century, there would only be 100 languages left in the world. The Hmong people are one of the newest refugees from Laos. They came to America 40 years ago. According to Pfeifer, Sullivan, Yang, and Yang (2013), there are about eight million Hmong people worldwide, and 256,430 of them live in the United States. Today, the Hmong students are losing their language at an alarming rate. The purpose of this study was to investigate the current perceptions held by Hmong people ages 18 and older about the Hmong language and whether or not it should and could be maintained and passed on to future generations. This study hopes to create awareness in the community and prevent the Hmong language from disappearing from the Ethnologue. A sequential mixed methods design was used to collect the data. Findings showed that respondents perceived the Hmong language as important and would like to see it preserved for future generations.

Title: What is a good girl? The Evolution of Feminine Identity in the American Hmong Community. Author: Mieke Nicole Lisuk. Source: MA Thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento, California. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 128 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Traditional Hmong culture was a patriarchal society with marriages arranged by male clan elders. The Hmong were recruited by the CIA to assist in the Vietnam War and later fled to Thailand. American education and notions of western culture were introduced in the Thai camps. Hmong marriage rituals changed after resettlement in the United States. Through exposure to education and American culture, women challenged old world traditions and opted to delay marriage and children in favor of education.

Title: The impact of culture and acculturation on the academic achievement of Hmong American college students. Author: Linda Vang. Source: Ed.D Dissertation, California State University, Fresno. Location: Fresno, California. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 153 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Each year, the population in the United States grows more diverse, and that diversity is being reflected in the classroom. Because students come from different social, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds, it is important to uncover how these factors impact students’ academic achievement, particularly among those whose cultural capital differs from that of the mainstream. The objective of this research study was to determine the extent to which cultural factors and acculturation impact the academic achievement of Hmong American college students as measured by their grade point averages. Using a mix-methods approach that was grounded in theories of social identity and cultural capital, the researcher gathered data from Hmong students residing in California, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. The quantitative and qualitative data include students’ perceptions of their family, cultural heritage, and native language fluency, as well as students’ experiences in academia. Findings reveal that certain factors within culture and acculturation, such as family and perceptions of gender, do impact the academic performance of Hmong college students.

Title: Former Hmong Refugees in Sacramento County: Perceptions of their Acculturation and Assimilation Issues. Authors: Che Cha and Pa Lor. Source: M.A. Project, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento, California. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 88 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Acculturation can be defined as transformations people experience as a result of contact with culturally different perceptions and when two or more cultures come in contact. Assimilation can be defined as a process of boundary reduction that can occur in which persons of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds interact. This research Project explored acculturation and assimilation difficulties of former Hmong refugees in Sacramento County, California. Former Hmong refugees that attended the Sacramento Hmong New Year were recruited as sample subjects. Findings indicated that 65.7% the former refugee received some type of education besides English as a Second Language (ESL) classes, and 34.3% did not receive any education. Furthermore, a social work implication is law makers' ability and motivation to continue to pass policies supporting the many programs that work to help strengthen the refugees to adjust to mainstream society.

Title: Academic Achievement of Hmong Students at Sacramento State University. Author: Xeng Thao. Source: M.A. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento, California. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 69 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This research project examines the academic attainment and achievement disparity in higher education among Hmong students. The purpose of this project is to identify the disparity and attribute to factors that impact the unequal attainment rates of college degrees between the two genders at California State University, Sacramento. Theories such as ecological, resilience, and self-determination aids the study in understanding how education can be used as an empowerment tool for Hmong women who come from a traditionally patriarchal society. Out of the 326 Hmong students who graduated from Summer 2012 to Spring 2014 at the studied university, Hmong females graduated nearly twice (61.7%) compared to Hmong males at 38.3%.

Title: Resiliency among Hmong Women Who Were Teen Mothers. Author: Pa Nhia Xiong Source: M.A. Thesis, California State University, Fresno. Location: Fresno, California. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 103 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Hmong teen mothers have endured many hardships throughout their lives, including financial and educational struggles along with cultural dilemma. This study was an in-depth qualitative research on the lived experiences of 10 Hmong women who were teen mothers between the ages of 13 to 20. This study focused on the adolescent mothers’ experiences and how the role of young motherhood has shaped their lives and impacted their educational and career attainments. This study highlighted the positive outcomes of Hmong women who were teen mothers and provided a deeper understanding of how these women became resilient despite adversities in life. In order to better understand them and capture their resiliency, all of the participants were asked to share their unique life stories through their own perspectives. The important themes that emerged from the young mothers’ interviews were resiliency, positive outcomes, traditional family and cultural expectations of oneself, the experiences of becoming teen mothers, and support systems. The findings from this research indicated that these Hmong women have become resilient despite hardships; therefore, being culturally married and having children at an early age did not hinder their abilities to achieve positive outcomes and educational and professional goals. In contrast, their experiences as teen mothers were the driving forces that motivated them to obtain higher education, professional careers, and financial stability.

Title: An exploration of Hmong lexical adverbs, aspects, and moods. Author: Nalee Thao See. Source: M.A. Thesis, California State University, Fresno. Location: Fresno, California. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 130 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Cinque (1999) observes a relationship between lexical adverbs and functional heads (tense, aspect, and mood) in his analysis of various languages. He proposes a universal hierarchy of clausal functional projections and locates tense, aspect, and mood in the head of each functional projection and places adverbs in the specifier position of the projection. The current study attempts to identify and classify lexical adverbs, aspects, and moods in Hmong, a Hmong-Mien language spoken in China, Southeast Asia, and the United States, in accordance with Cinque’s classification. In addition, this study will provide a description of the placements of Hmong lexical adverbs, aspects, and moods. A lexical/functional diagnostics test will be applied to seven adverb-like Hmong morphemes to see whether they are lexical or functional categories. Once identified, the ordering of these elements will be tested against Cinque’s universal hierarchy of clausal functional projections. The current study aims to provide a more in-depth study of lexical adverbs, aspects, and moods in Hmong, in hopes of contributing to the study of the Hmong language as well as the study of adverbs, aspects, and moods in general. This is the first study of its kind for Hmong.

Title: Hmong Parent Involvement through Shared Reading. Author: Kaying Her. Source: M.A. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento, California. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 177 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: As an educator witnessing students not complete their school work or parents communicating with the school, the lack of parental support is a frequent occurrence each school year. Students’ academic success does not solely rely on students, but also on their parents and those within the student’s environment. There have been numerous parental involvement studies on diverse populations but there has not been one specifically on English Language Learners (ELLs) Hmong parents. Since the Hmong has grown significantly within the last 40 years; a problem that Hmong still face is a lack of support for those not achieving academic success because they are “lumped” together with other Asian ethnic groups, which often hides their academic struggle. As indicated by Hing (2012) over one-third of all Hmong, Cambodian, and Laotian Americans over the age of twenty-five do not have a high school diploma. Almost 70% of Indian and over 50% of Chinese, Pakistani, and Korean-Americans over the age of twenty-five have a bachelor’s degree, while Cambodian, Hmong, and Laotian-Americans who have bachelor’s degrees average around 13% (Hing, 2011). This is a critical issue because Hmong students are not receiving the resources and the help needed to attain academic success within the educational system. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of parent involvement workshops and training on Hmong-speaking parents’ participation in their child’s education at home. A series of 9 workshops focused on various forms of reading comprehension instruction implemented through shared reading provided in English and/or Hmong. The methods used by Hmong parents during reading to help their child were examined as well as if access to reading strategies in their primary language impacted the support they provided their children in reading. Communication between the home and school were also examined to see if there was an increase in communication after participating in the workshops. Pre-and post qualitative data came from the 4 parent participants of second grade students that consisted of parent survey and interviews. This data was analyzed to help understand the developmental growth of the parents. Also the 4 second grade students whose parents were participants in this study were interviewed to help document what parents were doing different at home. The results of qualitative data collected indicate an increase in parental involvement after participation in the training and workshops. Before the workshops, 1 out of 4 parent participants was helping their child at home and on reading. However after the study, all 4 parent participants were engaging and talking more with their child at home on homework and reading. The Hmong parents’ definition of “help” changed. Before the workshops, parents’ deifined “help” as being able to decode. If the parents could not read, then they could not help. Now parents described helping their child by talking and questioning what their child was reading, which ultimately will help their child’s literacy development.

Title: The Missing Voice of Hmong Parents: Studying Supports and Obstacles to Parent-School Communication. Author: Nalee Moua. Source: M.A. Thesis, Washington State University. Location: Pullman, WA. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 60 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: Parental involvement continues to be a topic of interest among many teachers and school administrators. The purpose of this thesis is to gain an in-depth understanding of the Hmong community and the obstacles and barriers that may hinder their involvement in their child’s education as well as the support they may have received that helped increase their involvement. I provide this information to teachers and school administrators so they can become more aware of the reasoning behind the increase or decrease of Hmong parental involvement.

Title: I am a "Hmong American": An Exploration of the Experiences of Hmong Students in College. Author: Ducha Hang. Source: M.A. Thesis, University of Rhode Island. Location: Providence, Rhode Island. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 237 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: As the changing demographics in the United States are steadily shifting the student populations in colleges and universities, the focus on retention and college success becomes ever more important. When marginalized and underrepresented students like Asian Americans enter post-secondary education institutions and are assumed to fit stereotypes like the Model Minority Myth which suggests that all Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) students are high achievers, how do these students succeed and continue with their education under challenges including discrimination, language barriers (Lee, 2008) and cultural tension (Xiong and Lee, 2011; Ngo, 2007)? This study explores the experiences of Hmong college students. More specifically, the goal of this research is to describe how Hmong students make sense of their college experiences from their perspectives by examining two research questions: How do Hmong students make sense of their experiences in college? What contexts and situations influence the experiences and success of Hmong students in college? This research uses a phenomenological approach consisting of in-depth interviews with Hmong students from a New England college and Hmong individuals who have graduated from college. The first interview required the participants to respond to questions exploring their family backgrounds, experiences in schools prior to college, and their experiences in post-secondary education. The second interview was facilitated to provide opportunities for participants to elaborate on statements and stories from the first interview and was used for member checking. The students’ responses from the interviews were audio recorded, transcribed, and analyzed. Using phenomenological analysis and specifically thematic inductive analysis, the data were analyzed to develop themes. Three themes emerged from the data and captured how Hmong students make sense of their college experience: navigating the college system, support structures, and living in a bicultural world: “I am Hmong American”. These themes were used to develop recommendations for practitioners in higher education and suggestions for future research.

Title: Hmong students' life experiences that affect educational attainment. Author: Pam Thao. Source: M.S.W. Thesis, California State University, Stanislaus. Location: Turlock, CA. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 42 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore and identify the various life experiences and factors that contributed to Hmong adults staying in college and how they ultimately graduated from college while coping with their experiences along the way. In-depth interviews were conducted with 12 Hmong students by using semi-structured, openended questions. Findings revealed that the participants' parents' life experiences in Laos, their struggles with the Vietnam War, and their relocation to the United States made a big impact on the students' decisions to attend college. Support from family and friends, professors and advisors, and the use of university services such as the Tutoring Center and Educational Opportunity Program, helped the participants remain in college and eventually graduate. Study implications suggest a need for social workers in college counseling centers. Social workers are more likely to be sensitive regarding the issues and needs of Hmong students, and they have a deeper understanding of cultural sensitivity concerning minority students. Future studies could focus on continuing to explore this topic to gain a broader and deeper knowledge base

Title: Struggles and needs of the Hmong community: an exploratory study. Author: Aimee Maihoua Xiong. Source: M.S.W. Thesis, California State University, Stanislaus. Location: Turlock, CA. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 80 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to understand the needs of Hmong community members. In order to do so, the struggles of the Hmong community are explored to understand the circumstances that led to their needs. The intent of this study is to gain information that could be used to improve the effectiveness of programs and improve the lives of members of the Hmong community. The data are collected through a qualitative, exploratory, ethnographic study. Face-to-face interviews are utilized with a sample of seven participants to explore each participant's struggles and needs living in the United States. This researcher explores the services participants feel the Hmong community may need to improve the Hmong's lives. The results of this study reveal that participants struggled most with learning English, educational and occupational attainment, and financial hardships. The findings of this research indicate a need for services that provide information about educational and occupational attainment, learning English, and tutoring services. Additionally, participants echoed the need for a community resource and outreach center that would provide information about available services within the Hmong community. This researcher suggests social workers should be educated about the Hmong community, develop trust with the Hmong community, and consider creating programs to improve the lives of the Hmong community. Additionally, social workers should advocate for policies that provide a livable wage, fair employment practices, affordable housing, and access to affordable education.

Title: Social mobility of 1.5 and 2.0 Hmong generations in the Sacramento - San Joaquin Valley. Author: Max Xiong. Source: M.S. Thesis, Sacramento State University. Location: Sacramento, CA. Year: 2015. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 57 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: It has been over 40 years since the Hmong have left their homeland to settle in the United States, as a result of the Vietnam War. This study compares the social mobility of the 1.5- and 2.0-generations of Hmong after their arrival to the United States. Within the Asian American population, the Hmong community has the lowest educational achievement, socioeconomic status (SES), and social and occupational mobility. This study explores social-economic status, education, social and cultural influences, as well as other factors, which are likely to affect the social mobility of the Hmong. Furthermore, this research indicates that with higher educational attainment and social and capital resources, the trajectory of Hmong’s upward mobility in the Sacramento – San Joaquin Valleys will likely be positive.

Title: The weather is like the game we play" Hmong and Yao food security and emerging livelihood vulnerabilities in the northern uplands of Vietnam. Author: Sarah Delisle. Source: M.S. Thesis, McGill University. Location: Montreal, QC. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 147 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Introduced in 1986, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam's economic renovation policy, or Doi Moi, has both expanded and constricted livelihood opportunities in the northern uplands, while the introduction of modern agricultural technologies, namely hybrid rice seeds, has created new challenges for the region's largely ethnic minority householders. The incidence of extreme weather events in the region further point to a multiple-stress environment. The aim of this thesis is to assess food security and livelihood vulnerability, stresses and coping strategies among ethnic minority Hmong and Yao in Sa Pa District, northern Vietnam. To answer this aim I draw on a conceptual framework that incorporates key elements from food security, sustainable livelihoods, and vulnerability literatures. Focusing on eight villages in the Muong Hoa valley in Sa Pa District, Lao Cai province, I completed ethnographic fieldwork, including informal conversational interviews, semi-structured interviews and a Photovoice project with Hmong and Yao participants. I undertook fieldwork in summer 2012 and completed follow-up research in summer 2013. I find that Hmong and Yao food systems are exposed to internal and external stresses that diminish access to needed livelihood capitals and decrease asset productivity, as well as constrict overall food output. Householders respond by blending traditional safety nets with newer market-oriented opportunities to diversify their coping strategies. Access to livelihood capitals, especially financial and social capital, determines a household's coping capacity. In sum, while most Hmong and Yao households are resilient, I argue that the psychological impact of livelihood stresses and the lack of government support for these communities decrease resiliency and must be addressed.

Title: The motivation for higher education among Hmong college students and the impact of parenting styles. Author: Cynthia Moua. Source: M.S.W. Thesis, California State University, Stanislaus. Location: Turlock, CA. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 87 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore the educational motivating factors and the parenting styles experienced by Hmong college students. The participants of this study were Hmong college students and alumni who studied at a University of California or a California State University. The data was collected using a quantitative online survey. There were a total of 297 participants, with 220 of the participants completing the survey. The survey consisted of 27 items which measured the type of motivation and the type of parenting styles experienced by participants. The collected data were analyzed through the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program. The results of this study revealed that the most prevalent parenting style experienced by the participants was an authoritarian (strict) parenting style, followed by an authoritative (flexible) parenting style, and a permissive (lenient) parenting style. Participants selected an authoritative parenting style as the parenting style that they felt would best promote educational motivation within Hmong students. Extrinsic motivational factors such as job security, financial stability, and family acknowledgement, was revealed to have motivated participants to obtain a college degree and would also best serve as educational motivating factors for future Hmong students. This researcher suggests that social services should advocate for policies that will implement the promotion of cultural awareness and earlier higher education awareness among minority students such as Hmong

Title: Hmong women's attitude towards higher education: what is a hyper-educated NYAB? Author: MaiHoua M. Lo. Source: M.A. Thesis, California State University, Chico. Location: Chico, CA Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 131 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: From Central Asia surviving great battles, war, migrating to the mountains of Laos and resettlement in Thailand to the United States, the Hmong people have come a long way. Living in the United States the Hmong elders have resisted assimilation fearing that their children would lose all family traditions and values. The younger generations quickly acculturated transforming from traditional roles taking on new opportunities while living in the United States. Hmong daughters and nyabs are choosing to go against what people from rural Laos view as an unchangeable tradition, of following the path of getting married young and having as many children as possible. This thesis explores the contested nature of the Hmong women’s identity and their roles as it was back in their homeland, their struggles assimilating in the United States and their influences to pursue or not pursue higher education.

Title: A study of self-efficacy in a group of Hmong refugees. Author: Mai M. Yang. Source: M.A. Thesis, Smith College. Location: Northhampton, MA. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 86 pages.. Format: PDF

Abstract: Social cognitive theorist Albert Bandura defined resilience as the ability to organize thoughts and actions to manage prospective and unknown situations. He called it the theory of perceived self-efficacy (Bandura, 2010). The tool used to measure this construct is called the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), which assesses a broad stable sense of an individual’s personal competence to efficiently deal with a variety of stressful situations. Previous research suggested that due to its positive association with mental health and well being, the GSES and theory of self-efficacy are worthy of further examination in refugees (Sulaiman-Hill and Thompson, 2011). This study examines different variables in comparison to levels of General Perceived Self-Efficacy in a group of 49 Hmong refugee adults living in Minnesota and California. Results found language proficiency, education level, citizenship status, and years lived in the U.S. to be positive predictors of higher perceived self-efficacy. Those with higher self-efficacy reported less depressive and anxiety symptoms. Age, marital, gender, and employment statuses had no significant relationship with self-efficacy scores.

Title: "Knowing Who You Are": The Role of Ethnic Spaces in the Construction of Hmong Identities in the Twin Cities. Author: Zachary Jay Bodenner. Source: M.A. Thesis, Ohio University. Location: Athens, OH. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 258 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: The geographic literature has shown that there is a connection between ethnic spaces and ethnic identity formation and persistence. However, by focusing on the Hmong population of Minneapolis, and St. Paul, Minnesota, this qualitative research will demonstrate that different types of ethnic spaces play different roles when it comes to these complicated formulations. Ethnic identities are complex, socially constructed phenomena that shift with changing contexts, and are in fact not mutually exclusive; any individual person could identify as a member of multiple ethnic groups. These intricate identities are displayed in ethnic spaces where Hmong individuals showcase, in a variety of ways, embodiments of these identities that are symbolic, commemorative, artistic, bodily, and performative. Ethnic spaces become not only producers and re-producers of identity, but outlets for the expression of identity in all its complicated forms.

T itle: The Hmong journey -- a children's book on Hmong history: cultural curriculum for first grade teachers. Author: Ger Thao. Source: M.A. Thesis, California State University, Chico. Location: Chico, CA Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 215 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: Culture is a powerful influence and literature is a powerful medium. Together they form an exciting dual which offers a variety of possibilities in the classroom. The purpose of this project is to develop a picture book depicting the Hmong journey to America and cultural curriculum lessons for first grade teachers which will provide information, ideas and strategies for the sharing of Hmong cultural literature in the classroom. This curriculum will have an emphasis on one particular culture—the Hmong. Ever since 1975, the Hmong have found it difficult to remain on their native soil. The Secret War resulted in the largest mass emigration of the Hmong people in recorded history. Today, emigration is still very much part of Hmong life. It is especially likely in the United States to meet those who claim to be Hmong or to have “Hmong roots.” However, despite the presence of thousands of Hmong refugees, the Hmong in the United States receive little known attention as an Asian ethnic group. This is due to the intentional spread of the Hmong around the country. In the 21st century where the differences between groups must be tolerated rather than destroyed and diversity is more common, recognition of all cultures is essential. This curriculum serves as a mirror for establishing more authentic cultural links between the Hmong of Laos/Thailand and those living in the United States. It also opens a window on teaching K-2 students about a specific culture in our nation/community. This connection will be formed through children’s literature. The creation of the picture book The Hmong Journey and existing literature by Hmong authors and Hmong American authors will be included so that children in United States may appreciate the rich Hmong heritage. The purpose of this project is to produce a children’s picture book and cultural curriculum lessons that introduces and exposes Hmong American culture in children’s literature for first grade teachers. In order to create a picture book and curriculum, a knowledge base had to be established in the literature review. This base consists of Hmong history, Hmong culture, Hmong cultural traditions, oral traditions/storytelling, multicultural literature, and Hmong American children’s literature. Each section in Chapter II of this project signifies the need for more children’s books to be written about the Hmong American culture and implementation in the school curriculum.

Title: Academic achievement among Hmong students in California: a quantitative and comparative analysis. Author: Sue Lee. Source: Ph.D Dissertation, University of Southern California Los Angeles, California. Location: Los Angeles, California. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 90 pages Format: PDF.

Abstract: This quantitative study compared Hmong high school students’ scores in English language arts (ELA) and mathematics on the 2010 California Standards Tests (CST) to the scores of other racial/ethnic student subgroups at the state level. The study further examined whether an achievement gap exists between the Hmong student subgroup and other comparable student subgroups within the same school districts while controlling for socioeconomic status, English language acquisition status, and parent education level. California state level data were used to compare the CST ELA and CST math mean scores for 12 major subgroups for this study. For a more accurate comparison of student subgroups receiving the same curriculum and academic resources, data within 14 California school districts that reported having tested a considerable Hmong student population were further examined. Using data from the 14 school districts, the racial/ethnic student subgroups’ mean performance tiered scores and mean scaled scores on the CST ELA and CST mathematics were reported by grade level, and then again with the control variables. Lastly, Cohen's d was used to measure the effect sizes. The analysis and effect sizes indicated that a comparable achievement gap exists between the Hmong student subgroup and other racial/ethnic student subgroups. Specifically, Hmong students in California did not perform well compared to the majority, if not all, of the other racial/ethnic student subgroups at the state and district level. Moreover, the three consistent student subgroups found to be performing at the level of the Hmong student subgroup in ELA and mathematics were the Black/African American, Hispanic/Latino, and Laotian student subgroups. The findings of this study point towards other practices and research needed to better understand the realities of the Hmong educational experience, which is the start of understanding best practices for teaching Hmong students.

Title: A story of the people: the hmong, in CIA's secret war in Laos during the Vietnam conflict: a supplemental unit to the history/social science curriculum. Author: Chao Vang. Source: M.A. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento, California. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 277 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The current History/Social Science Framework currently used by social studies educators in today's classroom is substantially out of date as it was written in 1986. The primary authors of this document were European American senior scholars working within a European American perspective who in return must have been educated in the early 1970s. As a result, the “History/Social Science is structured largely as a story of European immigration and the construction of a nation around Judeo-Christian values and European political institutions" (Sleeter & Stillman, 2005, p. 43) due to the political and ethnic makeup of the people commissioned to draft the 1986 framework. Since the initial adoption in 1987, the History/Social Science Framework is supposed to be updated every seven years but has been "readopted three times with only minor updates" (Sleeter & Stillman, 2005 p. 33). According to Campbell (2000), "the classical, Eurocentric curriculum inaccurately represents history and the humanities, discounting or ignoring the contributions of people of color" (p. 305) Because of this, the present History/Social Science curriculum is divorced from the realities and experiences of the youth, particularly, students of color many of who cannot relate to History/Social Science curriculum. The historical content, facts and figures printed in textbooks and taught by educators is predetermined. Due to the framework, most schools fail to teach an accurate or omits, the complete history of minorities, such as the recruitment and contribution of the Hmong by the CIA during the conflict in Vietnam. This is a problem created in part by the failure to revise the History/Social Science Framework and Standards. Thus, with this lack of an inclusive and equitable curriculum, the responsibility is placed on teachers to develop the multicultural and Hmong focused lessons for California's students. The absence of Hmong American history from the standard curriculum in today's public schools has created a disconnection with Hmong American's identity, culture and heritage. Hmong American students feel alienated because they are group labeled and lumped as the model minority and their culture and history is excluded as a larger part of American history. For this reason, proponents of teaching and incorporating history of minorities history into the curricula suggest a student learning about his or her culture not only improves individual self-esteem and provides a sense of identity, but raises their grades and increases interest in school (Asante, 1991; Banks, 1993; King 1992; Ladson-Billing, 1999). The same can be said for Hmong American students who feel alienated because the history and contribution of the Hmong is underrepresented in school curriculum. Thus, the teaching of this supplemental unit on Hmong American history in a school setting intention is to provide an equitable and need to empower Hmong American students, who are one of the lowest academically performing minorities in California underrepresented and overtly omitted in school curriculum. For this supplemental unit on Hmong and their contribution to American in Laos during the conflict in Southeast Asia to be successful, the author identify that the incorporation and implementing culturally responsive and critical pedagogical teaching strategies in essential.

Title: A phenomenological study of Hmong women's experience with forced marriage in the Hmong culture. Author: Paj Tshiab Vang. Source: M.S.W. Thesis, California State University, Fresno. Location: Fresno, California. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 96 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This exploratory qualitative research study utilizesfeminist standpoint theory and shame cultures to explore the experience of Hmong women who married young by force of the family, due to a situation that is considered taboo in the Hmong culture. Three situational taboos were considered in this study: (a) premarital pregnancy, (b) bringing the girl home later than the parent(s) liking, and (c)visiting the girl without parental knowledge.Semi-structured interviews with five Hmong women residing in the Central Valley of California were conducted. This studyisguided by the principles of hermeneutic phenomenology as described by Van Manen (as cited in Creswell, 2007) and Creswell (2007). Three themes emerged in the study: shame, freedom, and resilience.Findings indicate that shame and the value placed on saving face in the Hmong culture werecontributing factors to their forced marriage.

Title: Mobilités de travail et (re)construction des rapports sociaux au sein d’une communauté Hmong de Chine (province du Guizhou). Author: Sebastien Carrier. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Montreal. Location: Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: French Language. Pagination: 565 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: Rural-urban mobility is unquestionably one of the most striking phenomena that China has experienced since the wide-ranging reforms of the 1980s. Besides its unparalleled magnitude, it has been an essential foundation of its economic transition and development. But if the social impact of mobility has been extensively studied in cities where ‘peasants’ (as farmers are called in China) sojourn, little is known of the effects of mobility in their community of origin, and even less when the community belongs to a ‘minority nationality’. Based on fieldwork conducted over an 18-month period, this dissertation examines the impact of labor migration on the social (re)construction of a Hmong (Miao) community in rural China. Practices of mobility for work purposes are twofold in the studied community: migrants are either itinerant herbalists in close-by cities or factory workers in the eastern cities of the country. An original approach to social change has been used, integrating the spheres of imagination and practice, and takes into account the economic and spatial components of the migration phenomenon. Moreover, this research proposes an innovative theoretical model, by giving equal importance to the discourses and the actions in the process of social change of both migrants and non-migrants. First, this study reveals the recent remodeling of the spatial and the economic foundations of the studied community. It shows that places, scales, social networks and borders all structure the community’s territory – in both real and imaginary spheres – and that they have become more complex and numerous as a result of the unprecedented circular migration of its inhabitants to and from their village. At the economic level, besides confirming dominance of remittances at the household level, it also appears that development and inequality issues are now addressed by members of the community primarily through the phenomenon of migration. Second, the results expose the strong imprint of mobility in the social sphere. In need of support, migrants and left-behinds are increasingly seeking help within their lineage, clan, village, and matrilineal networks. In this process, it is not uncommon for them to consciously go against the traditional family hierarchies. Through mobility, long marginalized groups such as women and young adults, have now gained esteem, autonomy and decision-making power. Meanwhile, the social order has shifted. It is no longer the volume of agricultural production, but the number of migrant workers, which now determine the social classes within the community. Finally, in the broader context of minorities in China and the Southeast Asian Massif, this dissertation addresses the debate about the social impact of mobility beyond the paradigms of modernization and integration. Unlike most of the literature pertaining to this issue, this research provides evidence that it is not enough to focus on the changes experienced by migrants through contact with urban dwellers and their so-called modern way of life. It shows that it is necessary to recognize the capacity for initiative and social innovation of all the members of these minorities, migrants or non-migrants. It also stresses the centrality of the question of identity. Feelings of marginality and subordination remain strong and they do not seem to fade as a result of migration. On the contrary, these feelings seem to most often result in a strengthening of social and community bonds within these minorities.

Title: Hmong voter education forums drawing out Hmong voters. Author: Cindy Vang. Source: M.S.W. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Montreal. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 77 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The study focused on voter education forums targeted at the Hmong population held prior to the November 2012 elections as a basis for determining whether additional work and services are needed to increase the civic engagement of Hmong community members. To identify whether Hmong voter turnout increased as a result of the voter education forums, thirty attendees of the voter education forums were surveyed following the November 2012 elections. Findings from the study indicate that there is a significant association between Hmong participants who spoke English who viewed the information provided at the voter education forums as valuable. More than half the participants surveyed were not born in the United States and 90% (n = 27) of the attendees reported to have voted in the November 2012 elections.

Title: Hmong perceptions of health and healing: shamanism, mental health, and medical interventions. Author: Yer Yang. Source: M.S.W. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento. Year: 2013. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 91 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This study explored how the Hmong understand and interpret illness, their perceptions of healing, and how they go about seeking treatment. Thirty voluntary participants were identified through snowball sampling and completed a survey that measured their language and cultural capacities, health experiences, and understanding of mental health. Through quantitative data analysis, the chi-square test of independence found a significant association between religion and mental health seeking behaviors of participants (p<.043). 44% of Christian participants said they have thought about seeking mental health treatment in the past compared to only 5% of Shamans. Recommendations of the study are to provide more education to the Hmong community about health (ie: mental health) in order to address stigma and mis-education. Another recommendation is to consider their cultural beliefs when explaining services and offering treatment.

Title: Displaced histories : refugee critique and the politics of Hmong American remembering . Author: Ma Vang. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of California, San Diego. Location: San Diego, California. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 250 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: Displaced histories name Hmong racial subjection as a project of displacing them from both the nation and history through war and knowledge production. This racial formation is constitutive of the United States so-called "secret war" in Laos (1961-1975) that was quietly and publicly known yet not made much of. Laos has been viewed as a Cold War "pawn" to the superpowers of the US and Soviet Union, and it constituted a crucial yet marginal position in relation to the Vietnam War. This dissertation investigates how the war as a historical period is also a project of knowledge production. Thus the war's secrecy not only hid US violence against Hmong and Laos but also produced racial knowledge to configure Hmong as gendered racial subjects who are primitive and exist outside of historical time. Furthermore, secrecy is a gendered racial configuration because it involved the twin projects of militarism and rescue. Secrecy's production of Hmong outside of history is how they have been configured as racial subjects because historical absence is a product of racial formation. Therefore, Hmong racial subjection highlights how history is a nationstate project and a signifier of one's emergence in modernity. This dissertation excavates history as it relates to nation and belonging because the war was not a secret for Hmong who were recruited by the CIA to fight as proxy US soldiers and bore the brunt of the violence. I argue that Hmong refugees/Americans contend with the forgetting of their history as part of a process to formulate histories and belonging in displacement. Hmong maintain that they saved US American lives in Laos yet their experiences in the US do not reflect the sacrifices they made to the US government. An estimated 35,000 Hmong died in battle while disease and starvation caused the death of almost one- third of Hmong in Laos when forced to flee from their homes. The soldiers, their families, and Hmong civilians fleeing from this invisible war in 1975 and years afterwards were targets of political persecution due to their collaboration with the US. Thus I foreground the refugee figure as a site to unravel the structure of secrecy as a fundamental function of state making, particularly US democracy since World War II. It also opens up the questions about nation, race, US empire, belonging, and knowledge production. Yet the Hmong refugee also constitutes an embodied category that activates nuanced responses to US historical amnesia and convoluted treatment. My analysis employs the "refugee archive" to emphasize Hmong displaced histories as a perspective to doing historical analysis that understands the past in relation to the present

Title: Multicultural Recruitment: A Case on Hmong Female College-Bound Students. Author: Meng Her. Source: MA Thesis, University of Minnesota, Duluth. Location: Duluth. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 71 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This study is a mixed method research looking at Hmong Women and their pursuit of higher education. It is a norm in the Hmong culture for women to have less privilege than men which leads to less freedom and more household chores. Studies have been done by other researchers in the 1990’s and found these cultural norms as barriers to higher education among Hmong women. This study looks at the barriers to see if it limits women’s opportunities to pursue a college degree but will also compare if there are differences between Hmong men and women. The hypothesis is that distance away from home may be an issue among the Hmong population when choosing a college for their daughters. Data will be collected by surveying Hmong college students in Minnesota and Wisconsin as well as interviewing Hmong college students, parents, and educators. Suggestions for future research will be to focus on men’s pursuit of higher education.

Title: The College Search Process: Differences between Hmong and Somali Students. Author: Bryan Karl. Source: MA Thesis, University of Minnesota, Duluth. Location: Duluth. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 60 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The researcher explored the college search process of three Hmong and one Somali student at four Minnesota higher education institutions using a phenomenological approach. Minority students, underrepresented/underserved students, are highly sought after by colleges across the nation. There are more than 60,000 Hmong and 30,000 Somali within the state of Minnesota. The author presented results utilizing six themes that emerged as noteworthy contributors of research participants during their college search process. The themes include: Residence, Ethnicity, Gender, Family Educational Background, Predispositions to Education, and Secondary Contributors.

Title: Hmong music in northern Vietnam : identity, tradition and modernity. Author: Lonan O' Brian. Source: PhD Dissertation, University of Sheffield. Location: United Kingdom. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 310 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: While previous studies of Hmong music in Vietnam have focused solely on traditional music,this thesis aims to counteract those limitedrepresentations through an examination of multiple forms of music used by the Vietnamese-Hmong. My research shows that in contemporary Vietnam, the lives and musical activities of the Hmong are constantly changing, and their musical traditions are thoroughly integrated with and impacted by modernity. Presentational performances and high fidelity recordings are becoming more prominent in this cultural sphere, increasing numbers are turning to predominantly foreign-produced Hmong popular music,and elements of Hmong traditional music have been appropriated and reinvented as part of Vietnam’s national musical heritage and tourism industry. Depending on the context, these musics can be used to either support the political ideologies of the Party or enable individuals to resist them. Access to an unprecedented diversity of musical styles has also led to an enhanced reverence for traditional music. While older musicians bemoan the changes to traditional practices, younger ones ensure the sustainability of the tradition by manipulating it in response to fluctuating contexts. Based on fifteen months of fieldwork with the Vietnamese-Hmong community, my descriptions and analyses of thismusical culture illustrate how people use music to position themselves socially in contemporary Vietnam. This thesis demonstrates how identities and boundaries are negotiated through musical activities that principally serve to make Hmong notions about life articulate. Case studies of individuals and groups of musicians, contextualised by relevant social, political and economic data, illustrate the depth and breadth of Hmong musics in northern Vietnam. Part I of the thesis introduces the research and outlines the history of the Vietnamese-Hmong, part II focuses on female and male traditional music and ritual practices,and part III examines how the Hmong are engaging with the diverse musical world in which they live.

Title: Hmong Music and Language Cognition: An Interdisciplinary Investigation. Author: Nicholas Poss. Source: PhD Dissertation, Ohio State University. Location: Columbus, OH. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 119 pages Format: PDF.

Abstract: Speech surrogacy, which includes the performance of verbal messages on musical instruments, is found in a variety of cultures. The developing field of music and language cognition can benefit from the study of these communicative forms, which confound our expectations of the boundaries between speech and music. Previous studies have focused on semiotic relationships of similarity between musical sound and speech. While this type of analysis can suggest strategies for decoding messages, it cannot explain how listeners make use of this information. Using methodology derived from psycholinguistics, this dissertation investigates speech surrogate cognition from the perspective of Hmong culture to find out how listeners understand verbal messages encoded in performances on aerophones called raj. In one experiment, musical phrases of varying lengths were presented to skilled listeners to investigate the strategies used in understanding performances. The results show that listeners are highly successful at identifying phrases. For ambiguous words, listeners relied mainly on the established relationships between musical pitch and lexical tone to infer meaning rather than broad distinctions between types of syllable onsets. This demonstrates a problem with the semiotic approach to analyzing speech surrogates: listeners do not necessarily make use of everything encoded in the signal. Finally, there were different reponse patterns for phrases of different lengths, indicating that the context of messages affects how listeners interpret them.

Title: Impacts of participation in Hmong as world language classes on outcomes for Hmong American high school students. Author: William Vang. Source: E.d.D. Dissertation, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento, CA. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 330 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This study examines the consequences for urban Hmong American high school students of participating in two years sequences of high school level Hmong as World Language courses. The Hmong population in the United States is a product of war, exile and resettlement at the end of the Vietnam War. Since their arrival, both the Hmong people and American social and political institutions have been trying to learn how to deal with each other more effectively and respectfully. One of the key American institutions engaging with the Hmong diaspora has been the public schools. This study explores one program in one public high school in north central California, initiated by Hmong educators themselves. The Hmong as World language program seeks to provide relevant academic education for Hmong American students by teaching Hmong as a “foreign language” for purposes of high school graduation and college admission requirements. Some of the most important issues facing young Hmong Americans include not having access to quality and equitable educational opportunity and losing their ethnic and cultural identity and language as they go through school. The results are often low academic performance in school or dropping out altogether. These pressures also push many young Hmong Americans away from their families and their traditions and into negative live choices which further disrupt the Hmong community (Cha, 2010; O’Reilly, 1998). The Hmong migrations to the United States are recent. Therefore, studies of Hmong educational attainment and cultural endurance in the United States are fairly new. However educational researchers and especially new Hmong scholars are beginning to identify factors that contribute to the problems faced by this group of students and to their success. Vang’s (1998) study showed a correlation between cultural retention and students’ academic achievement. Hutchinson (1997) and Rumbaut (1989) reported that connectedness to Hmong culture positively affected educational performance of Hmong American youth. Moreover, Ngo and Lee (2007) report many findings that Hmong and other Southeast Asian students who adopt a strategy of accommodation without assimilation are the most successful (See also, McNall, et al., 1994 and Lee, 2005). This study is ground in Yosso’s (2005) theory of community cultural wealth. Yosso identifies six forms of community capital which together constitute a pool of community cultural wealth that minority students, such as the Hmong American students in this study can draw upon. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative analyses. These included statistical analysis of the relationship between participation in Hmong as World Language (HWL) instruction and other measures of high school success and in depth analysis of interviews and focus group dialogues with teachers of HWL and recent graduates who had taken HWL. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses found that taking HWL for two years had many positive outcomes for students and no identifiable negative consequences. Positive academic outcomes included improvements in high school GPA and increased skill and confidence performing academic work in all subjects. An additional educational outcome was students’ confidence and optimism about future educational and career plans. Positive outcomes for the students outside of school included strengthening their relationship with family, community and culture. Students born in the United States who took two years of HWL talked of coming back home to their Hmong identity and families. Students born in Thailand, recent arrivals from the closure of the last Vietnam era refugee camps, insisted that the HWL classes helped them learn how to navigate the system of American high school requirements. This study demonstrates the importance of incorporating the strengths of the Hmong American community into the education of their children and confirms the power of heritage language to bind a community together and to develop high level thinking in bilingual, bicultural students. The study concludes with recommendations for expanding the availability of Hmong language studies to other schools and grade levels with identifiable Hmong student populations and for further research on the educational journey of Hmong students in the United States and globally.

Title: The appropriate assistance for Hmong college students. Author: Wyler Yang. Source: M.A. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento, CA. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 132 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: Since the arrival of the Hmong in the United States as war refugees, they have been shadowed by the Asian Minority Success Myth (Ngo & Lee, 2007) which holds that all Asians and Asian Americans excel in the classroom. A Critical Race Theory analysis of this model and the varieties of Cultural Capital brought to this Acculturation process shows Hmong students at a disadvantage (Bourdieu, 1986; DePouw, 2012; Perna & Thomas, 2008; Rick, 1988). Other literature suggests hidden Cultural Capital, positive characteristics of Biculturation and positive outcomes of Hybridity can promote education success among minority students (Lowe, 2000; Rick, 1988; Yosso, 2005). Statement of Problem: Not all Hmong college students go through the same challenges. This study categorizes Hmong college students by various demographic variables to determine challenges they face from family, community, institution and self as they pursue their higher education. It explores what might be most supportive of Hmong college student success. Methodology: The researcher surveyed Hmong college students at one California university during the 2011-2012 academic year about the challenges they face in completing their college education and the resources they draw upon and the ways in which their path through college could be better supported. The students self-identified as Hmong and were contacted through the Hmong University Student Association. Participant responses were coded and analyzed to identify patterns of responses that pointed to common issues and to differences among subgroups within the Hmong students. Conclusions and Recommendations: Students surveyed were primarily from two categories: Adjusting-Animist-Male and Adjusting-Animist-Female. The greatest differences in responses were tied to gender, with males facing self-related challenges and females facing family-related challenges. Both faced institution-related challenges. Problems of support were tied more to difficulties in students reaching out for help rather than institutional refusal. Future research regarding Hmong college students should begin at the high school level, and study the intersections of culture, surroundings and self-concept as these affect Hmong students’ difficulties in reaching out to others in their educational environment.

Title: Hmong for Hmong Only - Hmong I: A Supplementary Reading Readiness Course Packet for Beginning College Hmong Students. Author: Lee Xiong. Source: MA Thesis, California State University, Chico. Location: Chico, CA. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 153 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The Hmong language was identified as an oral tradition in which the older generations orally taught values, morals, and ritual rites to the younger generations for thousands of years dated back to 2,500 B.C. in China. About 6 decades ago, a group of French-American missionaries and a linguist developed a writing system for the Hmong in Laos in 1950. It was identified as the Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA script). The RPA script became the literacy for the Hmong. For the Hmong language, the RPA script is divided into three groups: consonants, vowels, and tone markers. The consonants are further categorized into four groups such as 18 single consonants, 22 double consonants, 14 triple consonants, and 3 quadruple consonants. There are a total of 57 Hmong consonants, 13 vowels, 6 mono-vowels, and 7 bi-vowels. There are eight tone markers that indicated the high, middle, and low pitch in each word that is spoken. These are the important elements of the Hmong literacy. Once a student has mastered the pronunciation of these individual letters she or he would be able to paste the letters to make words. The words could be formed into sentences. This researcher noticed the alphabet to be a problem for the Hmong American students because English and Hmong rely on the same alphabets, but different a phonetic guide. It is frustrating for many beginning Hmong American students when they first attempt to learn the language.

Title: Personal Story of a Hmong Student's Learning of Mathematics in School: A Case Study. Author: Moua Xiong. Source: MA Thesis, California State University, Chico. Location: Chico, CA. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 117 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This thesis examines the process of a Hmong student learning mathematics on the community college level. The researcher selected a Hmong student from Butte College to conduct an interview regarding his educational experience but focused mainly on mathematics. The interview took approximately eight weeks, and each interview took about an hour with three interviews performed each week. The researcher also interviewed the participant’s parents to gather information regarding their family background to support this Hmong student’s learning experience. The results indicated that this Hmong student learned mathematics in school by examples provided by the instructor. He relied on his memorization abilities to remember the mathematical-solving procedures. He practiced diligently to prepare himself to solve problems for in-class tests. The results also revealed that motivation was the key to inspire this Hmong student to go to school and to study. The participant identified five roots of motivation that inspired him to continue his education, especially in mathematics such as parent’s support, people’s admiration, desire to compete successfully in the classroom, interest in assisting others, and the desire to be a role model for younger siblings. This study showed that 78.97% of all mathematical word problems were translated into the Hmong language before translated into algebraic symbols. The other 21.03% was translated straight from the word problems written in English to algebraic equations by the participant. In addition, 81.48% of all the word problems, regardless of the English language structure, were translated word by word from left to right. The remaining18.52% of all the word problems was not translated from left to right due to the same English language structure. During the interviews, the researcher provided 31 word problems that came from four different types of mathematical word problems for the participant to solve. The accumulative percentages from all mathematical word problems performed by the participant were 64.5% correct vs. 35.5% incorrect. Moreover, this study revealed that the participant was able to get 1) 100% of all mathematical word problems written in Hmong language correct; 2) 80% of the mathematical word problems that the participant had correct was coming from left to right translation; 3) 20% was coming from basic English sentence structure; and 4) 0% correct from mathematical word problems written in English complex language structure. Accordingly, the translation of the written word into algebraic language created most errors due to language barriers for the participant.

Title: Perceptions of health care among Hmong Americans. Author: Stacy Thang Yang. Source: M.S.W. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento, CA. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 126 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The Hmong immigrated to America as a result of various life threatening conditions that prevented them from being able to live an ordinary life. Despite the huge population of Hmong who have settled in California, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, they still experience challenges when utilizing the modern health care system and its services. This study explores Hmong Americans’ perceptions toward both traditional and modern health care and their utilization of these services. Participants in this study were Hmong American adults who are former refugees and immigrants from Laos and Thailand. The findings of this research study reveal that there are indeed challenges and obstacles that have prevented Hmong Americans from utilizing modern health care, as well as its services, such as different philosophies toward health and illness, providers’ lack of understanding about the Hmong’s cultural beliefs and/or practices, and lack of sufficient English comprehension skills to communicate with health care providers.

Title: Hmong Americans and Healthcare Inequalities and Solutions. Author: Aurea Berger. Source: Senior Thesis, San Francisco State University. Location: San Francisco, CA. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 51 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The Hmong Americans are the newly added component of United States society. Due to lack of written language, exposure to harsh living conditions in refugee camps, and war, Hmong Americans’ adjustment to life in the United States has not been an easy process. As refugees, most of them have to rely on welfare for cash assistance and healthcare, especially the first generation immigrants. However, due to the existence of inequities in the US healthcare system as well as cutbacks on welfare budgets ─ many Hmong Americans ─ are without health insurance and are poorly served in the US healthcare system. The purpose of this research paper is to bring awareness to the existing problem that harms the health of the Hmong American community. Oral interviews, in-depth research, and questionnaires are used to investigate the problem regarding the ongoing healthcare issues that affect the Hmong American community. The findings of this research indicate that the Hmong Americans are indeed being served poorly in the US healthcare system because of lack of interpreter service (i.e. translator), conflict between the Hmong traditional healing methods and the Western health practices, and the lack of understanding by the Western health providers of Hmong American culture.

Title: Hmong Heritage Language Program at the Secondary Level at its Impact on Hmong Student Academic Achievement. Author: Ya Po Cha. Source: MA Thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento, CA. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 71 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The Hmong heritage language program at Lucky Banks High School has been implemented for over eight years. How has this program helped Hmong students improve their academic achievement? The methodology used in this study is a combination of quantitative analysis of student academic records and qualitative data collected from asurvey of Hmong high school seniors at Lucky Banks High School. There isa strong correlation between the number of years of Hmong heritage language students have taken and their level academic achievement. However,further studies are needed to directly link academic achievement to participation in the heritage language program at Lucky Banks High School.

Title: A Personal Tale of Self-Reflection by a Hmong English Teacher Forming a High School Leadership Club to Enhance Hmong Adolescents in Their Search for Personal Identity. Author: Ellen Moua Hamilton. Source: MA Thesis, California State University, Chico. Location: Chico, CA. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 116 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The purpose of this project is to create a handbook by creating a high school leadership club for Hmong students, to enhance their search for personal identity as they relate it to my own personal tale of self-reflection. In order to create my own personal tale and a leadership club to enhance Hmong adolescents, a background knowledge base had to be established in the review of literature. This background knowledge base con-sisted of adolescent identity, Hmong adolescents, Hmong culture, after-school programs and clubs, and leadership with a focus on self-reflection. Each section in Chapter II of this project amplifies the need for understanding oneself through family in-volvement, relationships, cultural loss, language loss, etc, for the search of personal iden-tity. Through the background knowledge base established in the review of litera-ture, the creation of my self-reflection was able to take form. The reflection is about growing up in two worlds; the Hmong world and the American world. The book is the self-reflection of my search for personal identity and is used to help enhance Hmong ado-lescents in understanding their search for personal identity. The book is titled, Washed Away Story of a First Generation Hmong Woman in America, and is recommended by the author to use in secondary levels to understand what it is to be Hmong living in two worlds, revolving around the themes of language loss, biculturalism, acculturation, as-similation, and simply finding out who we truly are.

Title: Hmong parent understanding of ear health. Author: Janene Griffin. Source: M.S. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento. Location: Sacramento, CA. Year: 2010. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 162 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: This ethnographic study concerns the incidence of hearing loss and other ear pathology for Hmong students of a Sacramento school district as identified by the school nurse researchers. The study sought to determine the Hmong parent understanding of ear health including ear anatomy, causes of illness and traditional care practices and utilization of western health care providers. The school nurse researchers conducted parent interviews using a Hmong interpreter over a ten-month time frame. Transcriptions of the audiotaped interviews were coded and analyzed for categories, patterns and themes. Identified patterns and themes were confirmed through further interviews until data saturation was obtained. Themes identified included communication and acculturation difficulties, knowledge deficit of ear anatomy and causes of ear pathology, misunderstanding of medical diagnoses and care and dual utilization of traditional and modern health care modalities. Findings affirmed that the school nurse stands in a unique position to assist Hmong families to improve their understanding and management of ear conditions and hearing loss.

Title: Rituals, Roles and Responsibilities included in a Hmong Funeral: A Guidebook for Teachers to Better Understand the Process their Hmong Students Experience in a Time of Family Loss. Author: Kirk Lee. Source: MA Thesis, California State University, Chico. Location: Sacramento, CA. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 78 pages Format: PDF

Abstract: The number of Hmong families in Butte County has increased in recent years, which has resulted in an increase of Hmong students attending local schools. However, the community at large is still unfamiliar with the Hmong culture, especially the funeral ritual. When there is a loss in the family, the students need to take time off from schools or related activities. Without knowing these students’ family background and cultural custom, teachers and school staff often do not understand their students’ roles in the grieving process during this time of loss in the Hmong culture, the funeral ritual is a very important event. During this time of passing, all family members, including children are expected to participate. It is important that the Hmong students take time off from school functions to honor their par-ents’ tradition, pay respect to the deceased, and offer condolences to immediate family members. However, as a member in the Hmong community, I have observed students take lengthy absences from school to participate in these funerary rituals, which have raised many concerns from teachers and school staff. This project is an attempt to explain students’ roles and responsibilities during the funeral rituals. At the end of this project, there are several recommendations teachers and school staff could utilize when they are confronted in these situations.

Title: New Mountain, New River, New Home? The Tasmanian Hmong. Author: Margaret Eldrige. Source: M.S. Thesis, University of Tasmania. Location: Tasmania, Australia. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: N.A. Format: PDF

Abstract: This study examines the first group of largely preliterate refugees resettled in Tasmania after the 1975 Communist takeover of Laos. Hill tribe people, the Tasmanian Hmong left Laos and spent years in Thai refugee camps. This thesis examines the possible reasons for their secondary migration to various locations in Queensland. Their departure from Tasmania raised questions about why this apparently well-settled community left the island. For example, many people assumed it was because of Tasmania’s cool climate. The thesis creates a context in which to examine the Hmong’s motivation to leave the island state, with reference to theories of migration, diaspora and globalisation. Oral histories draw out the stories of individual Hmong, their involvement in the Secret War in Indo-China, the escape from Laos, life in Thai refugee camps, their resettlement in Tasmania and subsequent departure for Queensland. Hmong informants include those remaining in Tasmania, those who left for Queensland and those who later returned to Tasmania. These interviews are balanced with voices of professionals and volunteers involved in settlement of the Hmong. Participant observation and itinerant ethnography have been employed, making use of everyday opportunities to collect information from which to develop ideas and to explain the secondary migration of the Hmong. This ‘history from below’, places value on the stories of ordinary people as a valuable resource. The research concludes that, in addition to the desire to create a mega-community of Hmong in Queensland — in an attempt to counter loss of tradition and culture, and build Hmong cohesiveness — secondary migration was influenced by a desire for family reunification and a strong economic motive. It demonstrates that secondary migration is typical of many refugee communities. In particular, the secondary migrations observed in diasporic Hmong communities have parallels with migrations of Hmong from China and with traditional movements in Laos, where swidden agriculture requires establishment of new villages when depleted soil or sickness affects settlements. The research is important because there has been little recorded about the Hmong community in Tasmania, nor about other Australian Hmong communities. Since the once vibrant Hobart community is now a remnant population, it is important to place on record its story as part of recent social history. In examining a refugee community such as the Hmong, this thesis offers an investigation of the circumstances of becoming refugees, an analysis of settlement experiences and an exploration into the context and reasons for secondary migration. In addition, it provides an entry into comparative research on other refugee communities, which has relevance for those who work with refugees and are interested in their demographics.

Title: Appropriating the Unspoken Text: Development Discourse and Hmong Women in Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Author: Kimberly C. Mendonca. Source: Ed.D. Dissertation, University of San Francisco. Location: San Francisco, CA. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 158 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Development, from a broad perspective, is neither new nor uncommon. As a result of media attention, Westerners are becoming more versed on global development challenges to reduce poverty, hunger and disease. Some of the world’s most famous actors have become activists and now serve as spokespeople for organizations that promote development. However, missing from these efforts is clear understanding of the unique needs and desires of various people of the world and, as a result, the best way to assist them in the fulfillment of those needs often remains unexplored.This research investigated development in Laos. More specifically, it studied the concepts of development through an interpretive approach as they affect the women in the Hmong community. This research was conducted from the perspective of interpretive anthropology with selected theories drawn from a critical hermeneutic orientation. The specific process and protocols were appropriated from Herda’s (1999: 85-138) orientation to participatory hermeneutic inquiry. Ricoeur’s (1984, 1985, 1988) theories of narrative identity, mimesis and action provided the framework for exploration of the research inquiry and helped to give voice a place in identity. The findings of this research focus on changing the lens from which leadership is viewed; shifting the way development from being seen as a linear process to one that is understood as an interpretative process, and refocusing on the essential goals of development. ivThe significance of this research is the creation of a public space to give voice to Hmong women, a marginalized group both because of their ethnicity and their gender. The project broadens the dialogue about strategies and shapes new ideas of development. The stories of the Hmong women serve as a catalyst for further discourse about development as well as empowering and fundamentally improving the status of the Hmong women, their families and their communities.

Title: Diversifying livelihoods: Hmong use and trade of forest products in northern Vietnam. Author: Claire Tugault-Lafleur. Source: MA Thesis, McGill University. Location: Montreal, Quebec. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 177 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This thesis investigates the importance of forest products for Hmong highland minorities in Sa Pa district, Lao Cai province, northern Vietnam. Since their migration from Yunnan nearly two centuries ago, the Hmong in upland Vietnam have remained relatively autonomous, relying on a diverse production system including wet rice terraces, swidden fields, livestock, non-timber forest products and, more recently, for a limited number, handicraft and tourist-related activities. In 1992, the Vietnamese Government, via Decree 327, officially banned all forms of slash-and-burn practices and opium cultivation, thus cutting off highlanders from important sources of income. Drawing on qualitative field work, I examine the changing livelihood portfolios and the place of forest products within the Hmong domestic economy from the socialist (1954-1986) to the post Doi Moi period (1986-present) in Sa Pa district, Lao Cai province. Then, focusing on one such forest product, by using a case study of cardamom, analysed through a commodity chain approach, I detail trade networks and inter-ethnic exchange dynamics regulating the commercialisation of cardamom in Lao Cai province. As such, this study unravels the dynamic and fluid nature of Hmong livelihood strategies and the place of forest products within these livelihood portfolios.

Title: The communication of verbal content on the Hmong Raj : an ethnographic analysis of performance practice. Author: Nicholas Poss. Source: MA Thesis, Ohio State University. Location: Columbus, OH. Year: 2005. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 176 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: First generation members of the diasporic Hmong-American community continue the practice of communicating verbal content on a variety of instruments, including raj , a family of aerophones. Based on field research with White Hmong (Hmoob Dawb) residents of Wisconsin and Minnesota, this thesis provides an in-depth ethnographic account of raj performance in America. Through interview, participant observation, musical transcription, and computer analysis of recordings, the relationship between words and musical sound is investigated and contextualized in performance. Building on the work of Eric Mareschal and Amy Catlin, multiple levels of communication in raj performances are investigated, moving beyond previous descriptions based on the "speech surrogate" model. Although an instrument for courtship in Laos and Thailand, raj performances in America are most likely to occur at Hmong New Year celebrations or at private family gatherings. Utilizing consistent relationships between lexical tone and musical pitch, performers extemporaneously manipulate conventional and formulaic phrases into personal expressions within a limited range of topics. Skilled listeners interpret verbal content in familiar melodic contours and rhythmic patterns. Associations between the sound of words (lexical tone) and sets of pitches, different across various raj and between scales played on a single raj, serve to clarify ambiguous content. Still, performances and interpretations of performances are rarely word-for-word. Rather, performers develop motor patterns for favorite expressions that are understood on multiple levels as performances unfold. Ornamentation, breath control, and precise fingering add beauty to performances and communicate the skill and cultural knowledge (txawj) of the performer. Thus performances are more than instances of "speech surrogacy" as defined by Theodore Stern. In this way, the raj remains relevant for new generations of. Hmong-Americans who, due to lack of experience or familiarity with the Hmong language, cannot understand the underlying words. Furthermore, this deeper understanding of raj performances can inform future research on the relationship between language and music in Hmong culture as well as provide a starting point for the investigation of connections between lexical tone and musical pitch in cognition.

Title: Hmong Visual, Oral, and Social Design: Innovation within a Frame of the Familiar. Author: Judy Lewis. Source: M.A. Thesis, Sacramento State University. Location: Sacramento, CA. Year: 1993. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 176 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Hmong social organizationhas been described in prior research as one based on patrilineal kinship and shifting cultivation, and characterized by cross-cousin marriage, virilocal residence, and strong patriarchy. The social pattern is influenced by available land, applicable and available agricultural methods, methods for obtaining cash and entering a market economy, the proximity of kin, ties with affinal groups, the whims of “fortune,” the actions of spirits and the well-being of ancestors. For the Hmong in the United States are added the constraints of vocational opportunity, family size, increased interaction between members of a patriline and non-Hmong, and increased understanding of Hmong in a wider social context. Past research on Hmong social organization places primacy on the environment and obligatory kinship relationships in the overall pattern of social groups. The work of Mary Douglas suggests that a group’s social patterns are revealed in the patterns that characterize the various forms of cultural expression. Nicholas Tapp and Patricia Symonds have contributed to the understanding of the role of oral history, ritual details, identity maintenance, and gender differences in social design over time and space.The purpose of this thesis is to examine four cultural expressions (stitchery, sung poetry, elaborate expressions, and folktales) for an underlying structural pattern that links them in “Hmongness,” and to look at the process by which innovation is accommodated. The pattern and process will then be compared to the Hmong social organization as described in the literature, and as found in one Hmong caj ceg(patriline)and pab pawg(collaborative group) as conceptualized by one of its members.The conclusion is that visual and oral expressions can be characterized as successive frames, expressed in oppositions or contrasts, surrounding a meaningful “kernel” at the center. The compositions are innovative juxtapositions of familiar core elements that are identifiably “Hmong.” Likewise, social groups can be visualized frames within frames, surrounding a kernel group—a family, at its most elemental, the daughter-in-law and her husband—surrounded by successive frames of identity. The social group is not defined by external factors, but is an active and creative manipulation by individuals acting within groups.The design emerges from core elements (kinship, marriage, chance encounter, and reciprocal obligation), creating a design that is recognizably “Hmong” and will bring reputation and renown to the group. In general, the creation of textile design is the work of women, while the creation of social designs is the work of men, and both create sung poetry

Title: Journeys, Boundaries, Maps, Paths, and Paradigms: The Decorah Hmong and the Decorah Native. Author: Marilyn Anderson. Source: M.A. Synthesis, Hamline University. Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1991. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 119 pages. Format: PDF

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Abstract: The Hmong are a distinct Asian people who, for thousands of years, dwelled in China, and then, more recently, in Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. The Vietnam War caused thousands of Hmong to be displaced, and many came to the United States. This paper describes the decade-long resettlement of Hmong refugees in Decorah, a small town in Iowa. The history of the Hmong is told, and aspects of Hmong culture, including marriage and religion, are discussed. Efforts made by the Decorah Hmong to preserve their culture, and interactions between Hmong and long-time Decorah residents are examined. Much of the paper is a first-person narrative comprised of personal experiences with the Hmong as an English-as-a-Second-Language instructor, on extensive interviews with the Hmong, and on wide reading in anthropology and other social sciences. A lengthy list of references is included.

Other Online Publications Related to Hmong Studies

Title: What We Know About the Hmong Refugee Crisis of Decades Past and how it Relates to the
Current Syrian Refugee Crisis. Author: Sheila Yingwangkay. Source: The Undergraduate Journal in Politics, Policy, and Society (UJPPS). Year: 2019 Additional Source Information: Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This comparative case study links the current Syria crisis to the historical conflict in Laos during
the early 1960s until the late 1970s. The Central Intelligence Agency’s (CIA) involvement with the Free Syrian Army and the Hmong tribesmen is discussed to fill the gap in literature to understand the importance of their paralleled relationship with the agency and how the United States of America uses the CIA to conceal their involvement in foreign wars. Content analysis using coverage from the New York Times, along with media coverage of Hmong refugees from 1975 to 1990 and of Syrian refugees from 2012 to 2015 will illustrate that major patterns in the Hmong case are similar to Syria’s current refugee crisis. Both Hmong and Syrian refugees experienced chemical warfare from regimes backed by the Russian military. They encounter persecutions when crossing international borders and waterways causing increased civilian mortality. In both cases, regime violence targeted key United States allies and collaborators. This paper argues that the crisis of the two countries is significant to understanding the devastating
impact that developed nations have in developing countries and how its national interest in foreign affairs can lead poor nations to destruction, thus causing a global refugee influx. Most of which is done through proxy wars by recruiting vulnerable local villagers, tribesmen, and rebels to fight. The study therefore concludes that the Hmong case could be a useful benchmark in determining the outcome of Syrian refugees.

Title: Field Guide to Hmong Culture. Authors: Dia Cha, Mai Zong Vue, Steve Carmen (Madison Children's Museum). Source: Madison Children's Museum. Location: Madison, WI. Year: 2004 Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 91 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This work provides the reader with an introduction to Hmong history and culture. Topics covered include: Hmong history, clans and lineage, daily life in a Hmong village, Hmong food and farming, Hmong art, wedding and new year's celebrations, shamanism and Hmong religion, Hmong folklore, the Hmong language and Hmong games and recreation.

Title: The Hmong: An Introduction to their History and Culture. Authors: John Duffy, Roger Harmon, Donald A. Ranard, Bo Thao, and Kou Yang Location: Washington D.C. Year: 2004 Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 60 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This work is intended to provide an introduction to Hmong culture and history. Topics covered include history, life in Laos, the refugee experience in Thailand, literacy and education, resettlement in the United States, the Hmong language and common Hmong words, phrases and sayings. A short bibliography is also provided.

Title: English-Hmong Handbook for Teaching Hmong-Speaking Students. Authors: Bruce Bliatout, Bruce Downing, Yang Dao, Judy Lewis. Location: Rancho Cordova, CA. Year: 1989. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 158 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (From the Preface); this handbook was developed as part of the Asian and Minority Language Group Project in the Bilingual Education Office, CaliforniaState Department of Education. The project was designed to assist school districts in providing effective bilingual education services to language minority students. The Project Team identified as its first major activity the development of handbooks for a number or Asian and minority language groups.The purpose of these handbooks is to assist school personnel in understanding selected Asian and minority language groups. The hand-books have been designed for use by bilingual education specialists as wellas administrators and teachers who have more general responsibilities forthe education of language minority students.Chapter I and II of this handbook address general background factors regarding the Hmong-speaking language group: immigration history, educational background, and sociocultural factors. Chapters III and IV contain specific information regarding the Hmong language and appropriate program offerings that will promote the academic achieve-ment of Hmong-speaking students.

Title: Bilingual Dictionary of School Terminology, Cov Lus Mis Kuj Txhais ua Lus Hmoob. Authors: Huynh D Te, translated by Lue Vang. Location: Rancho Cordova, CA. Year: 1988. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 81 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (From the Forward): this glossary was prepared to meet a need often expressed by school staff, teachers, teacher's aides, liaison workers, and parents for a bilingual reference work which would include educational terms not usually found in general bilingual dictionaries. It is the hope of the author, Huynh Dinh Te, and the translator, Lue Vang, that this glossary will be useful for them in their educational task and will facilitate the communication between school personnel and Hmong parents.

Other Websites with Research Publications Related to Hmong Studies

Dr. Gary Yia Lee's Website

Abstract: Website of anthropologist Dr. Gary Yia Lee featuring scholarly articles, topical commentary, short stories and poetry.

Dr. Kao-Ly Yang's Website

Abstract: Website of anthropologist Dr. Kao-Ly Yang featuring scholarly articles, topical commentary, and poetry.

Other Research Publications

Title: Conservation and Ethnobotanical Knowledge of a Hmong Community in Long Lan, Luang Prabang, Lao People's Democratic Republic Authors: Cory William Whitney, Min (Meej Vaj) Vang Sin, Giang Lê Hồng, Can Vu Van, Keith Barber, Lanh Thi Tran. Location: N.A. Publisher: Ethnobotany Journal: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: In 2012 and 2013 participatory ethnobotany explorations were undertaken with herbalists from the Hmong ethnic group of Long Lan village, in Luang Prabang, Lao People’s Democratic Republic. These investigations into the knowledge and experience of indigenous elders of Long Lan and surrounding villages sought to identify the relationship between the spiritual-cultural practices and livelihood uses of plants and their conservation. Information about 74 plant species of 49 families was recorded, including 25 herbs (17 perennial, 8 annual), 20 trees, 17 shrubs, 10 climbers, and 2 ferns. Analysis of quantitative ethnobotany scores indicated positive trends between uses and conservation practices for plants. The study suggests that the traditional Hmong cultural uses for plants may be a mechanism for the conservation of biodiversity in the rapidly deteriorating forests of Luang Prabang in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic.

Title: Exploring Travel Interests and Constraints among Minnesota Hmong. Authors: Michele Schermann, Ingrid Schneider, Chou Moua & Tou Thai Lee. Location: Minneapolis. Publisher: University of Minnesota Extension. Year: 2014. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 26 pages. Format: PDF.

Abstract: As Minnesotans comprise about half of Minnesota’s travel market (Davidson Peterson, 2012), understanding this in-state population is important to attract and retain consumers and, subsequently, support communities and economies. As of 2015, tourist data primarily focuses on white, non-Hispanics. Other markets exist, however,and are growing in Minnesota and elsewhere. A rather unique Minnesota market is the Hmong, as the state has the second highest Hmong population in the United States. Research on other immigrant groups finds some challenges and opportunities related to leisure and leisure-related activities, such as travel. This report provides results from initial qualitative explorations of Hmong leisure travel behaviors. Given a self-reported propensity towards outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism, Hmong are particularly important to consider in destination areas where the outdoors is a key attraction. Results will inform planning, marketing,and product development for Hmong tourists as a niche group both in the United States and Minnesota.Six focus groups occurred fall 2014 with a convenience sample of Hmong Minnesotans across three age groups (n= 56). Held in socially valued places and facilitated by a Hmong Minnesotan who could speak Hmong and English, the focus groups explored travel interests, behaviors,and preferences among participants. The discussions took place in the language preferred by the group (English, Hmong,or a combination of the two), were recorded for later review, and ended with a traditional Hmong meal. Participants were compensated for their time ($50) and invited to review and confirm the data and findings.Data revealed Hmong travel for and are generally constrained from travel for similar reasons as non-Hmong. Specifically, Hmong Minnesotans travel to get away, relax, and visit attractions or appealing destinations. Hmong Minnesotans do not travel as much as they desire due to time, finances, and distance to destinations. Like other immigrant groups, the influence of culture on leisure travel preferences and participation was clear, as were constraints of discrimination. Specific cultural influences on travel included the perceived value of leisure travel, familial responsibility for elders, travel group size, as well as food preferences. Discrimination was particularly prominent outside the Twin Cities Metropolitan area. Generational differences in travel preferences and behaviors existed and are in stark contrast to the broader U.S. and Minnesota population where the older generation has more money and interest in travel than - Hmong elders and the younger generation is not as culturally compelled toward group family travel. To attract and retain Hmong consumers, Hmong suggest 1) facility information, specifically for larger travel groups and parking; 2) Hmong marketing through word of mouth, traditional and electronic, 3) packages and tours including Hmong travelers.

Title: Asian Pacific Students in Minnesota: Facts, not Fiction. Authors: Council on Asian Pacific Minnesotans. Location: Saint Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 46 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (From the Executive Summary), according to the Minnesota Comprehensive Assessment (MCA) 2011 test results,66.1% and 54.4% of Asian Pacific students scored as proficient on the MCA reading and math tests, respectively. In comparison, 80.8% and 63.3% of White students were proficient in reading and math, respectively. This seemingly smaller achievement gap between Asian Pacific and White students has led to less attention and concern given to the needs of Asian Pacific students in Minnesota. However, researchers, community members, and educational professionals have long recognized that the reporting of aggregated data for Asian Pacific students is misleading and masks educational disparities experienced within the Asian Pacific population in Minnesota.In response, this report disaggregates MCA data for Asian Pacific students by language spoken at home, ethnicity, income level, English proficiency, and mobility. Through such analysis, this report providesnew understandings about the academic performance of Asian Pacific studentsin Minnesota.

Title: State of the Asian Pacific Minnesotans Report. Authors: Council on Asian Pacific Minnesotans. Location: Saint Paul, MN. Year: 2012. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: Every ten years, the United States of America goes about the process of counting or enumeration of its population. This census is constitutionally mandated as a way to apportion the members of the United States House of Representatives. The census is also used to distribute federal funding to local communities. In the 2010 Census, approximately 74% of households returned their census form by mail, the remaining households were counted by census workers walking neighborhoods throughout the United States. Minnesota’s response rate was 75%.The census is the most comprehensive source of demographic data on the US population and tells us much about our nation’s people and its change over time. This report presents the current state of Asian Pacific Minnesotans, what our population is, and our social and economic status. The data herein provides a snapshot of the lives we lead and is evidence of the struggles and successes we face. In black and white numbers, it tells us who we are, but it does not tell us who we will be.

Title: Southeast Asians at a Glance: Statistical Profile 2010. Source: SEARAC. Location: Washington D.C. Year: 2011. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This report provides a range of statistical data pertaining to Southeast Asian American ethnic groups across the United States from the 2010 census. The following general categories of variables are included in the data tables: population, immigration and naturalization; education; income and employment and housing.

Title: Tobacco Use in Minnesota: A Quantitative Survey of Cambodian, Hmong, Lao and Vietnamese Community Members. Source: Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Minnesota, ClearWay MinnesotaSM, Asian Pacific Tobacco-Free Coalition of Minnesota, Southeast Asian Refugee Community Home. Location: Minneapolis, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 64 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: This report presents results of the DREGAN quantitative research initiative, a survey of members of the Southeast Asian communities in Minnesota (Cambodians, Hmong, Lao and Vietnamese). The research project aimed to determine the prevalence of smoking among minnesota’s Southeast Asian communities using culturally appropriate survey methods. An additional goal was to describe knowledge of the harms of tobacco use, attempts to quit and exposure to secondhand smoke among these communities.

Title: Voices of those Impacted by the Economic Downturn and Recommendations for Economic Recovery for the Asian American Worker. Authors: Council on Asian Pacific Minnesotans. Location: Saint Paul, MN. Year: 2009. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 39 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (From the Executive Summary): this report offers a picture of the challenges facing Asian refugees and immigrants in today's bleak job market. Their stories put a face on the crisis.

Title: Dropout Prevention: Stories and Ideas from Hmong and Lao High School Students in North Minneapolis Authors: Council on Asian Pacific Minnesotans. Location: Saint Paul, MN. Year: 2008. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 26 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: (From the Executive Summary): Asian Pacific Islander students as a group are staying in school and finishing school at about the same rate as the statewide rate of 3%. Even in Minneapolis and St. Paul, the two cities with the largest enrollment of API students, the rates are the same as in St. Paul (10%) or slightly better as in Minneapolis (7% vs. 12%). Thus, at first glance administrators, educators, and policymakers might be tempted to look at API students and think that they are doing well. This perception is wrong and it jeopardizes API students, their families, and community. When these rates are compared to the statewide rate, twice as many API students in St. Paul and three times as many API students in Minneapolis dropout. The impact of these statistics are damaging and they are not acceptable.

Title: 1990 Census of Population: Asians and Pacific Islanders in the United States. Authors: U.S. Census Bureau. Source: U.S. Census Bureau. Location: Washington, D.C. Year: 1990. Additional Source Information: N.A. Pagination: 332 pages. Format: PDF

Abstract: A source book of statistical tables pertaining to Asian ethnic groups in the 1990 U.S. Census.

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