Hmong Studies Virtual Library - Journal Articles

Hmong Studies Journal Articles 1996-2015

Title: Genesis of the Hmong-American Alliance, 1949-1962: Aspirations, Expectations and Commitments during an Era of Uncertainty. Author: Frederic C. Benson. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015.  Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 62 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: ​Following an overview of the Franco-Hmong relationship that developed during the first half of the twentieth century and laid the groundwork for future alignments, the main body of this paper focuses on the formative years of the multi-faceted Hmong-American alliance that evolved between 1949 and 1962. Chronologically summarized, this period encompasses wide-ranging and often tumultuous events that ultimately put Laos in what has been described as the cockpit of the Cold War and placed the Hmong on the front lines. When the colonial French withdrew from Laos following the First Indochina War, the United States stepped in to fill the vacuum left behind in the politically unstable country, Washington’s objective being to neutralize Laos and block Communist infiltration from North Vietnam through northeastern Laos—the homeland of the Hmong—and into the Mekong valley, the heartland of the politically dominant Lao, and neighboring Thailand. Trapped in the middle were the Hmong, a multi-clan ethnic minority originally from China that was held in contempt by the governing Lao. The Hmong resettled mainly in Xieng Khouang, a province bordering Tonkin in Vietnam, a country whose hegemony the Hmong historically resisted. The pro-West paramount leaders of the Hmong, Touby Lyfoung and his successor Vang Pao, served as mediators between clan leaders and were mindful of the expectations of their people and their aspiration for freedom. Recognizing that the threat posed by the Vietnamese placed their homeland and livelihoods in jeopardy, they negotiated the support of powerful foreign patrons—the French and later the Americans—and served as intermediaries between the Hmong clan leaders, their foreign patrons, and successive Lao governments. As the showdown leading to the so-called “Secret War” edged forward, the political agendas of the key players were frequently readjusted in the volatile environment. This paper describes the resulting uncertainties that emerged as mutual commitments were made, the outcomes of which often took unexpected turns. As time passed, the Hmong became the principal instrument of a continued Royal Lao Government presence in northeastern Laos. 

Title: Hmong Women and Education: Challenges for Empowerment in the Lao PDR.  Author: Miki Inui. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015.  Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: ​This study investigates how Hmong women’s educational access in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) has changed in recent decades. To investigate this developmental change, the study adapted a mixed research methodology; quantitative data was collected from the Lao national census. A series of qualitative interviews with research informants was also conducted. This study argues that for Hmong women in Laos, access to educational opportunities has been increasingly emphasized due to internal/external aid, which has positively impacted womens’ participation in the labor market, resulting in greater opportunities for empowerment. With regards to the latter, the lives of Hmong women have also changed significantly in recent years through increased access to higher-wage positions in Laos. 

Title: Tebchaws: A Theory of Magnetic Media and Hmong Diasporic Homeland. Author: Mitch Ogden. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015.  Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 25 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article theorizes forms of magnetic media—audio and video recordings—as a metaphor for diasporic memory. It then posits three versions of Hmong diasporic homeland imagination from the most immediate (a return to Laos), to ancestral China, and finally to an imagined utopic homeland theorized as tebchaws (DAY-char)—a term connoting place, land, and nation at once. Tebchaws becomes a critical piece of terminology that contributes to a theorization of Hmong diasporic homeland imagination. Examples of archival audio and video recordings are interpreted as manifestations of tebchaws, which draws heavily upon ecological sonic and visual images.

Title: Negotiating Two Cultures: Hmong American College Women’s Experiences of Being a Daughter. Authors: Shuling Peng and Catherine Solheim. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015.  Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: ​Phenomenological analysis was used to explore 14 Hmong American college women’s perceptions of their relationships with their parents. Participants perceived they had become more psychologically close to their parents as well as becoming more independent from them. Participants also identified an important developmental task for them at this stage of their lives which was to balance two cultures, their culture of origin and U.S. culture. Implications for counselors are discussed. 

Title: Hmong American Leadership and Unity in the Post-Vang Pao Era. Authors: Nengher N. Vang and Jeremy Hein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015.  Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: ​The passing of General Vang Pao (GVP) in a hospital in Clovis, California, in 2011 ended an historical era for Hmong Americans and the larger Hmong diaspora. This historical essay explores the changing meanings of leadership and unity for Hmong Americans in the post-GVP era. It first uses sociologist Max Weber's leadership criteria (rational, charismatic, and traditional authority) to explain Vang Pao’s enormous influence on the Hmong in Laos and as refugees in the Hmong diaspora. The essay then reviews current sources of rational, charismatic, and traditional leadership in Hmong American communities: electoral politics, non-profit organizations, religion, and clans. The essay concludes that it is unlikely that a large segment of Hmong Americans will ever again coalesce around one leader. Instead, two new political orientations may become more prevalent as the Hmong reconsider their place in the world: one that favors the local over the national, and another which favors transnationalism rather than the quest for their own nation-state.

Title: Displacing and Disrupting: A Dialogue on Hmong Studies and Asian American Studies. Authors: Hui Wilcox, Louisa Schein, Pa Der Vang, Monica Chiu, Juliana Hu Pegues and Ma Vang.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015.  Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: ​This article summarizes a roundtable discussion of scholars that took place at the Association for Asian American Studies Conference in San Francisco, 2014. Hailing from various academic disciplines, the participants explored the relationship between the emerging field of Hmong/Hmong American Studies and Asian American Studies. Questions of interest included: In what ways has Asian American Studies informed Hmong/Hmong American Studies, or failed to do so? In what ways does Hmong/Hmong American Studies enrich/challenge Asian American Studies? What are the tensions between these two fields and other related fields? How do/should the new programs in Hmong/Hmong American Studies relate to the existing Asian American Studies programs regarding curriculum, activism and/or resource allocation? 

Title: Hmong Sexual Diversity: Beginning the Conversation. Authors:  Kong Pheng Pha, Louisa Schein, and Pao Lee Vue. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015.  Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File.
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Abstract: ​In this paper, we describe a participatory workshop we facilitated on the diversity of Hmong sexualities and sexual norms – including our preparation leading up to the workshop and a summary of what we learned – at the 2015 Hmong National Development conference, which marked the 40th year that Hmong have been in the U.S. We also describe our positionalities and stakes in the matter as they helped to frame discussion. Topics discussed during the workshop included the “repressive” construction of “Hmong culture,” gender inequalities, desirability, sexual mores, LGBTQ identities and homoeroticism, virginity, sex acts and pornography. Participants engaged in lively conversation about issues of marriage, reproduction, hookups, sexual play, age and generation, sex education, and exclusion versus tolerance, amply underscoring the multiplicity of viewpoints that are represented among Hmong Americans. Finally, we raise the need for more community dialogues and more in-depth academic inquiry into Hmong sexualities. 
Title: Review of Dreams of the Hmong Kingdom: The Quest for Legitimization in French Indochina, 1850-1960.  Author: Nengher N. Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2015.  Additional Source Information: Volume 16, Issue 1. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File.
Abstract: ​This article provides a book review of Mai Na M. Lee’s Dreams of the Hmong Kingdom: The Quest for Legitimation in French Indochina, 1850-1960. Dreams of the Hmong Kingdom. It highlights the contribution of the book to the historiography of the Hmong and provides a critical assessment of the dichotomous analytical framework that Lee uses to analyze the rivalry between Hmong messianic leaders and Hmong political brokers and the competition between the Ly and Lo clans for paramountcy in French Indochina.
 

Title: Chao Fa Movies: The Transnational Production of Hmong American History and Identity. Author: Ian G. Baird. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.
Abstract: Films made by and for particular social and ethnic peoples can reveal a great deal about identity issues. Here, I examine the cultural production, the content, and the socio-cultural and political significance of three Chao Fa-inspired Hmong films produced at Khek Noi, Thailand by Hmong American producers working with largely Hmong Thai actors. The first two, Chao Fa 1 and 2, were directed in 2009 by Kou Thao. The third, Vaj Tuam Thawj – The Legend of Chao Fa, was put together by Jimmy Vang, in 2010. Even though these Chao Fa films are fictional, they attempt to depict events and circumstances that are familiar to many first generation Hmong Americans, and they can muster strong emotions from people who see them as depicting factual history. In addition, just like many other American youth, many 1.5 generation Hmong are tied together by shared media experiences, including Hmong movies. Thus, the Chao Fa movies are important for producing and reproducing, reinforcing and dispersing ideas related to Hmong American identity and culture. They tell stories of the Hmong being oppressed by many different groups, and this history suggests why many Hmong—not only the Chao Fa—have long desired the type of independence and freedom from prejudice and discrimination that they imagine would come if the Hmong only had their own nation state.

Title: Prevalence of Periodontal Disease in the Fresno Hmong Community.  Author: Mai Zong Her. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 13 pages. Format: PDF File.
Abstract: There has been no research conducted in the past or present to examine the dental health of the Hmong population in California. Having lived and emigrated from the hills of developing countries, such as Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand, where there are a lack of resources and community outreach on basic oral care, the Hmong population received very minimal attention in regards to dental health. The purpose of this research paper is to analyze the statistical data collected at a private dental clinic run by a Hmong dentist, Dr. Kao N. Vang, to illustrate the prevalence of the periodontal diseases, gingivitis and periodontitis. The intention of this quantitative research is to obtain a general overview of dental health in the Fresno Hmong community, as well as to explore how the intersection of vulnerabilities, such as Western acculturation, socioeconomic status, and the lack of a formal education among Hmong people, have contributed to the deprivation of basic oral care and affected the overall dental health of the population.

Title: Stressing Success: Examining Hmong Student Success in Career and Technical Education. Author:  Carmen M. Iannarelli. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File. 
Abstract: This study examines factors affecting the academic performance of Hmong students at Chippewa Valley Technical College in Eau Claire, WI. Factors specifically analyzed for their impact upon student success are socioeconomic status, family support, the use of academic support programs, and the influence of agents of socialization. Through the use of archival institutional data, Hmong students were compared to white students at CVTC in terms of their relative grade point averages, course completion rates, and retention rates. Data
revealed significant disparities in grade point average performance between Hmong and white students. The data also showed that eligibility for financial aid was significantly higher among Hmong students, and that this difference was commensurate with educational performance gaps between the two groups. Additionally, online surveys were
used to assess family support while attending CVTC, the role of academic support programs, and influential agents of socialization. Gender differences in grade point average performance and socialization also were analyzed. Implications of the study’s findings are discussed and recommendations for improving the performance of Hmong students are provided.
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Title: Utilizing Community-Engaged Approaches to Investigate and Address Hmong Women’s Cancer Disparities. Authors: Shannon M.A. Sparks, Pang C. Vang, Beth Peterman, Lisa Phillips and Mayhoua Moua
Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Cancer is a growing concern for women in the Hmong community. Hmong women experience poor health outcomes for both cervical and breast cancer, largely due to low rates of screening and resultant late-stage at diagnosis. Both breast and cervical cancer screening are complicated by a multitude of social, cultural and environmental factors which influence health care decision-making and can otherwise serve to restrict access.
We argue that community-engaged research, an orientation which prioritizes collaborative, equitable partnerships and community voice in identifying both problems and solutions, can be a valuable approach to helping address cancer health disparities for Hmong women. Using the Milwaukee-based “Healthy Hmong Women” project as a case example, we detail how the community-engaged approach implemented by the project partners was critical in
identifying factors contributing to Hmong cancer disparities and appropriate interventions, as well as the overall acceptance and success of the project. Specifically, we discuss how this approach: (1) promoted community investment and ownership in the project; (2) facilitated the integration of local perspectives and experiences; (3) built capacity to address cancer screening disparities; (4) facilitated the creation of interventions targeting
multiple ecological levels; and (5) framed the community as the foundation and driver of positive change.

Title: Review of Soul Calling:  A Photographic Journey through the Hmong Diaspora. Author: Kirk T. Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Book review of a photo essay book related to the Hmong experience as refugees and in the United States.

Title: Review of Hog’s Exit: Jerry Daniels, the Hmong, and the CIA. Author: Nengher N. Vang . Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 1. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Book review of a biography of Jerry Daniels, who worked with the Hmong during the CIA's Secret War in Laos.

Title: Hmong Across Borders or Borders Across Hmong? Social and Political Influences Upon Hmong People: Keynote Speech at the Hmong Across Borders Conference. Author: Prasit Leepreecha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: The Hmong are a transnational ethnic people, because of their dispersal from China into Southeast
Asia in the early 19th century and from Southeast Asia to Western countries from 1975 onward. However, even within the context of Southeast Asia and southern China, the Hmong are a transnational ethnic group, due to state boundaries and the enforcement of international laws. Scholars speak as though the Hmong population has crossed political and legal borders by their movement across state boundaries and international borders. However, I argue that it is the political, social, and legal borders that have cut across the Hmong people and subjected them to be citizens of different modern nation-states. Even in the present time, these borders still, and continuously, play
important roles that cross and divide the Hmong people into distinctive subgroups and fragments. In this article, I will start by describing the generally understood situation of Hmong being across national borders, and then will explain my argument that borders are across the Hmong.

Title: Hmong Research – Then and Now: Closing Keynote Speech at the Hmong Across Borders Conference. Author: Bruce T. Downing . Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This article consists of the text of a speech delivered by Dr. Bruce T. Downing as the closing keynote speech at the Hmong Across Borders conference at the University of Minnesota in October 2013. The speech discusses how the author became involved in Hmong Studies and how the University of Minnesota came to take on an important role in Hmong Studies research in the early 1980s. The author also discusses his involvement in early Hmong refugee resettlement efforts in the U.S. and how the landscape of Hmong Studies has changed over the past several decades. 

Title: Constructing a Governing Rationale: Developing Lao Hmong Refugees at Wat Tham Krabok. Author: David Chambers. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 13 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: In this paper I argue that Thai discourses of modernization and development have been taken up by the leaders and other prominent monks at Wat Tham Krabok Buddhist Temple (WTK) in central Thailand’s Saraburi Province and directed at governing a settlement of mostly Lao Hmong refugees that made their home on temple controlled land from the 1990s to 2000s. Though decoding the motivations on the part of WTK’s leaders and other
senior monks for allowing thousands of Hmong to settle on WTK controlled land is a complex process, viewing the story through the lens of development teaches new things about their overarching motivations for such an intervention. Furthermore, it allows several aspects of their governing rationale—including attention to legibility, territoriality, infrastructural development—to stand out and reveals that WTK’s leaders enacted specific
projects that appear to be directed at governing, reforming, and possibly modernizing the Hmong population at WTK. The styles of this intervention varied between the temples second and third abbots, Chamroon and Charoen, in their respective use of discursive versus material means of intervention. Considering these goals in concert with the history of material construction at the temple highlights how the material and discursive aspects of life at WTK are recursively connected to reinforce regimes of Hmong development toward an ideal of modernity that pays homage to symbols of Thai modernity and legitimizes WTK as a worthy Buddhist institution.

Title: Crossing Borders in Birthing Practices: A Hmong Village in Northern Thailand (1987-2013). Authors: Kathleen A. Culhane-Pera, Sarinya Sriphetcharawut, Rasamee Thawsirichuchai, Wirachon Yangyeunkun and Peter Kunstadter. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Background: Over the past several decades in Northern Thailand, there has been a contest of authoritative knowledge between the Hmong traditional birth system and the Thai biomedical maternity system. In this paper, we explore the contest in one Hmong village by describing the traditional and biomedical practices; families’ birth
location choices; and elements of authoritative knowledge. Methods: We built on a village survey and conducted an ethnographic qualitative case study of 16 families who made different pregnancy care choices. Results: The contest is being won by the Thai biomedical system, as most families deliver at the hospital. These families choose hospital births when they evaluate problems or potential problems; they have more confidence in the superior Thai biomedical system with its technology and medicines than in the inadequate Hmong traditional system. But the contest is ongoing, as some families prefer to birth at home. These families choose home births when they want a supportive home environment; they embrace traditional Hmong birth knowledge and practices as superior and reject hospital birth practices as unnecessary, harmful, abusive, and inadequate. Despite their choice for any given
pregnancy, the case study families feel the pull of the other choice: hospital birth families lament loss of the home environment and express their dislike of hospital practices; and home birth families feel the anxiety of potentially needing quick obstetrical assistance that is far away. Conclusion: While most families choose to participate in the Thai biomedical system, they also use Hmong pregnancy and postpartum practices, and some families choose home births. In this village, the contest for the supremacy of authoritative birth knowledge is ongoing.  

Title: Reflections on “Crossing Borders in Birthing Practices”:Hmong in Northern Thailand and Saint Paul, Minnesota. Author: Kathleen A. Culhane-Pera, Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 8 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: As a family physician and medical anthropologist, I have interacted with pregnant women and their families in Minnesota since 1983 and in one Hmong village in Northern Thailand since 1988. In the previous article I describe our recent research about Hmong families’ pregnancy and birth practices in Thailand. In this article, I
reflect upon the differences in Minnesota and Thailand, consider what socio-cultural factors may be influencing people’s experiences, and speculate that Minnesota Hmong experiences could be helpful to Thai Hmong.

Title: Mental Health and Hmong Americans: A comparison of two generations. Author: Pa Der Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2014.  Additional Source Information: Volume 15, Issue 2. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Early studies of Hmong refugees in the U.S. indicated high rates of mental distress related to post-migration stressors such as grief and loss, poverty, and social adversity. This study explores the mental health status of two generations of Hmong Americans 38 years after their first migration. The relationship between acculturation and mental health of 191 1st and 2nd generation Hmong are reported. Results indicated relatively low reports of depressive symptoms and medium to high rates of acculturation to American society. The results are unrelated to demographic factors indicating resilience and adaptation to Western society despite age and generational status and maintenance of culture of origin.  

Title: Youtube and the Hmong qeej. Author: Catherine Falk. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013.  Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 64 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper focuses on the iconic Hmong musical instrument, the qeej, and its presence in cyberspace on YouTube videos. Hmong in the west now engage in an implicit auto-ethnography using this technology presenting new constructions of themselves to themselves as well as to other, non-Hmong people. These constructions contribute to both literate and oral representations of pan-Hmong identity.

Title: Can You "Stand Your Ground" If You Are Hmong? Revisiting Wisconsin v. Vang In Light of Florida v. Zimmerman. Author: Jeremy Hein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013.  Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 19 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The 2012 shooting death of Trayvon Martin is widely seen as an unintended outcome of prejudice and misperception and therefore frequently is called a "tragedy."That is also the interpretation that the Hmong American media had of events in Wisconsin in 2004when Chai Vang shot eight white hunters who surrounded, taunted, and blocked his path as he attempted to walk away. This article analyzes 96St. Paul Pioneer Press articles on the Wisconsin hunting shootings to evaluate how key words in headlines defined the event for readers. The results show that within the first nine days of coverage the newspaper developed a contradictory vocabulary that included the terms "dispute," "rampage," "tragedy," and "homicide." After creating this lexicon the newspaper then introduced the highly sensationalized terms"massacre" and "slayings."The article concludes that the Hmong American media had the correct interpretation and that mainstream media bias prevented the deeper message of the Wisconsin hunting shootings from being learned: guns + prejudice = tragic violence.

Title: Mental Health of Hmong Americans: A Metasynthesis of Academic Journal Article Findings. Author: Song E. Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013.  Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: The mental health of Hmong Americans has been studied since their arrival in the United States. The purpose of this metasynthesisis to utilize a qualitative approach to analyze academic journal article studies that assess mental health issues in Hmong Americans. Forty-eight published articles from 1983 to 2012 were chosen for analysis. Each of the selected articles focused on Hmong participants and contained findings relevant to the psychological well-being of Hmong Americans. Results of this study revealed several common themes: trends in research, depression,anxiety, adjustment issues, family issues, substance abuse, other mental health concerns, factors linked to mental health, help seeking behavior and perceptions, effectiveness of mental health treatments, strengths and resiliency, and supportive factors.

Title: Minority status and schooling of the Hmong group in Vietnam. Authors: Minh Phuong Luong and Wolfgang Nieke. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013.  Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 37 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This study examines the disproportionately poor academic performance of the Hmong among the minorities in Vietnam by using Ogbu’s cultural ecological theory (Ogbu, 2003). Societal and school factors have been assumed by many policy makers and scholars to affect minorities’ equally, but the paper argues that may not be the case when minority status is taken into account. “Community forces”are pointed to as the putative cause of the Hmong’s differential academic performance. “Community forces” of each ethnic group are related to their status as a minority group,which orients their interpretations and responses to schooling. In this paper, the minority status of the Hmong is explained through their group development history, settlement patterns, livelihoods and economic adaptive strategies and political participation through a review of the scholarly literature on the Hmong. Additionally, field research was conducted in Vietnam using a grounded theory approach to ethnography to understand how minority status influences community forces, and in turn, how these community forces affect the schooling of Hmong students.

Title: Of Pride and Pencils: Deconstructing the Role of Ethnic Pride in Hmong Adolescent Identity Formation . Author: Jacqueline Nguyen. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013.  Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 19 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This study examines the ways that Hmong adolescents describe ethnic pride and how their descriptions are informed by perceptions of collective and social identities. Data from semi-structured interviews with 25 Hmong adolescents age 12-18 were thematically analyzed with attention to affective versus behavioral aspects of ethnic pride and the role of collective or social group identities in adolescent pride perceptions or expressions. Results indicate that Hmong adolescents view affective and behavioral components of ethnic pride as distinct and evaluated self and peer pride along these two dimensions. Moreover, pride was found to be defined as both an individual characteristic and a social construct, and the perception and expression of the term was informed by Hmong adolescent peer groups and collective identities.

Title: Genetic Research with Hmong-ancestry Populations: Lessons from the Literature and a Pilot Study. Authors: Donny Xiong, Jennifer Meece and Caitlin Pepperell. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2013.  Additional Source Information: Volume 14, Issue 1. Pagination: 28 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Genetic research with Hmong-ancestry populations has examined differentiation among other Southeast Asian groups and select health conditions; however, there have been few discussions of specific methodological approaches in the literature. Studies within ethnically diverse communities must conduct culturally competent research in order to avoid stigmatization and harm to the communities. We present recommendations for conducting culturally competent genetic research with Hmong-ancestry populations through insights from interviews and observations from a pilot study examining a potential genetic basis of susceptibility to a fungal infection within a Hmong community. Implications for future genetic-based health research and public health are discussed.

Title: Shamanism: Indications and Use by Older Hmong Americans with Chronic Illness. Author: Linda A. Gerdner.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This article reports qualitative interviews from an ethnographic study that explored in part, the health seeking behaviors of and for older Hmong Americans with chronic illness. The study occurred over a 36-month period in the St. Paul /Minneapolis area of Minnesota.

Title: The Grammar and Vocabulary Challenges of Generation 1.5 Hmong College Women in Academia. Author: Kim Huster. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 30 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Higher education institutions in the United States are seeing steadily increasing numbers of Generation 1.5 students from long-term immigrant populations. As part of this trend, more and more Hmong young people are successfully completing graduate and undergraduate degrees; however, by their own admission, many continue to struggle with English and are often frustrated in their college experiences by ongoing language challenges. A narrative research study of 13 Hmong women at a small private liberal arts college in northern California revealed specific types of grammatical and vocabulary limitations experienced by these students. These limitations are demonstrated through samples taken from oral and written stories told by the women. The article concludes with a discussion of the possible reasons for these limitations and then suggestions for ways that teachers and students may be able to enhance the language and literacy development process for Generation 1.5 populations including the Hmong.

Title: Hmong Students’ Perceptions of Their Family Environment: A Consensual Qualitative Analysis of Family Photos. Authors:  Dung Mao, Veronica Deenanath and Zha Blong Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Although various studies have examined the home environment of low-income families and its impact on children’s development, limited research has been done to investigate the impact of home environment on Hmong American families, especially those who live below the federal poverty line. The purpose of this study was to document from the students’ perspective what it is like to live and grow up in a poor family. Fifteen Hmong students in 5th through 8th grades took part in the photovoice project. The consensual qualitative analyses of the photos and interviews revealed two domains (family physical home environment and family activities), seven themes (crowded space, unkempt space, equipped with media,generational and gender separation, parental involvement, organization of daily life, and social connections) and 38 core ideas.Some implications of the study are proposed for educators who work with Hmong families

Title: The Importance of Family for a Gay Hmong American Man: Complicating Discourses of “Coming Out”. Author:  Bic Ngo. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This article draws on research with a gay Hmong young man to illustrate the ways in which coming out discourses fail to take into account the central importance of family and kinship for gay Hmong Americans.It draws on the narratives of a gay Hmong man that emphasizes the importance of family reputation and family bonds to offer an alternative discourse to coming out narratives. It advances understandings of gay identity and experiences by explicating the ways in which family and community are important for a gay Hmong American man. This research significantly contributes to the dearth of research on Asian American LGBT experiences in general and those of LGBT Hmong Americans in particular

Title: Singing as Social Life: Three Perspectives on Kwv Txhiaj from Vietnam. Author: Lonán Ó Briain. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Despite the recent influx of predominantly foreign-produced recordings of Hmong popular music, the vocal art form of kwv txhiaj still plays an important role in the daily lives of many Vietnamese-Hmong people. While previous studies of Vietnamese-Hmong music have tended to focus solely on the musical sounds, this article attempts to illustrate how kwv txhiaj is made meaningful in live performance by contextualizing the musical examples with ethnographic data. Using Timothy Rice’s Time, Place, and Metaphor model (2003) as a theoretical basis, three contrasting case studies of singers and their songs are examined: an elderly woman sings a song she learned at the time of her marriage at the age of nine, a younger woman sings while planting rice in her fields, and another sings about the importance of education at the local government cultural center. Based on fifteen months of fieldwork in northern Vietnam, this study examines a representative sample of performances from the Sa Pa district of Lào Cai province in an attempt to uncover what makes kwv txhiaj a vital aspect of Vietnamese-Hmong culture.

Title: The Mediated Figure of Hmong Farmer, Hmong Studies, and Asian  American Critique. Author: Hui Niu Wilcox. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The objective of this article is two-fold: First, it argues for critical engagement between Hmong Studies and Asian American Studies. Second, to illustrate the productivity of such engagement, this article analyzes the media coverage of an incident involving Hmong American farmers and their white neighbors in Eagan, Minnesota, June 2010. The focal question is how media discourses around farming and immigration serve to racialize Hmong American identities.This analysis shows that Hmong Americans experience “Asiatic racialization”in that they are either discursively cast outside of the imagined American nation, or included contingent upon assimilation and conformity. Critiquing both the exclusionary and assimilative narratives, this article explicates the inherent contradictions of the U.S.nationalism, referencing both existing Hmong Studies literature and Asian Americanist discourses on race and nation. Both bodies of work foreground the historical and social construction of identities, as well as the simultaneous, intertwined workings of race, class, gender/sexuality and nation. Critical dialogues could generate new ideas and possibilities for both Asian American Studies and Hmong Studies.

Title: The Evolution of Hmong Self-Help Organizations in Minnesota. Author: Shoua Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: The Hmong have several types of self-help organizations, classified accordingly to their purposes, to assist the Hmong to adapt to life in American culture. The central research question of this modest exploratory study relates to how these organizations have evolved over the years in terms of their programming focus and funding strategies. To answer this question, a qualitative approach is used to guide the collection and analysis of data.The study was conducted in the St. Paul/Minneapolis region from 2007 to 2012, where a large population of Hmong refugees has settled since the mid-1970s and where these organizations were founded.

Title: Commentary: Gender-based Violence among the (H)mong. Author: Jacques Lemoine. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Prepared for the Seminar on Cultural Factors in the Prevention and Promotion of Gender-Based Violence held at UNESCO Bangkok on 17-18 May 2012, this article presents the current state of the subject in the patrilineal, patrilocal and patriarchal (H)mong society. After delineating carefully (H)mong GBV through rape, marriage customs, domestic verbal and physical abuses and,in some cases,murder, the author investigates the roots of GBV in different directions: gender asymmetry and inequality; tribal culture and the clan system; the function of the bride price; women’s social mobility in the U.S. and values clashes with American values. After a thorough anthropological analysis, the author concludes that GBV has nothing to do with the clan system, the backbone of the tribal society, but rather involves a long-lasting borrowing of Chinese patterns from the (H)mong past in Imperial China,which could be amended. Gender inequality will hopefully regress if shame, a powerful means of social control among the (H)mong, is used to deter GBV

Title: Commentary: A Framework for 21st Century Hmong Leadership. Author: Pao Lor. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: The passing of General Vang Pao in January 2011invoked many emotions throughout the Hmong communities in America and abroad and became an impetus for transitional leadership efforts in the Hmong American community. As such, the authors were compelled to share some thoughts on a leadership framework that could serve as a guide, resource, and reference for those who find themselves within leadership positions in the Hmong community. Our proposed framework consists of three major components: 1) knowledge of the Hmong leadership continuum, 2) the infusion of a culturally embedded leadership structure into one’s leadership style,and 3) an embracing of the key attributes of leadership. The leadership framework utilized in this commentary article is drawn from several key sources including the academic literature, ethnographic observations, and professional experiences.

Title: Commentary: Mis-Education in K-12 Teaching about Hmong Culture,  Identity, History and Religion. Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This commentary article discusses several examples of inaccurate information about the Hmong presented in contemporary materials produced by school district staff and/or published by mainstream publishers in the United States for use with the K-12 market to teach about Hmong culture and history.

Title: Book Review: Hmong and American: From Refugees to Citizens. Author: Kong Pheng Pha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File.   

Abstract: A book review of a scholarly compilation related to Hmong American identity.

Title: Drama Review: At Secret’s End: American Hmong: A Memoir Play. Author: Louisa Schein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 6 pages. Format: PDF File.   

Abstract: Review of a play focused on the Hmong American experience.

Title: Book Review: An Introduction to Hmong Culture. Author: Yeng Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 1. Pagination: 7 pages. Format: PDF File.   

Abstract: Review of an introductory reader on Hmong culture.

Title: Hmong Population and Demographic Trends in the 2010 Census and 2010 American Community Survey. Authors: Mark E. Pfeifer,  John Sullivan, Kou Yang and Wayne Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Utilizing 2010 data from the U.S. Census and the American Community Survey, this article discusses shifting Hmong population trends at the national, regional, metropolitan and census tract level. The article also assesses contemporary Hmong demographics across the U.S. including age distribution, gender distribution, disability status, health insurance coverage and naturalization and foreign-born status. Policy implications of the population and demographic trends presented in the article are discussed.

Title: Making Ends Meet: Hmong Socioeconomic Trends in the U.S. Author: Chia Youyee Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This article examines Hmong socioeconomic trends from 1990 to 2010. A review of economic indicators across states and in relation to the U.S.population reveals that on an aggregate level, the Hmong American population’s socioeconomic status has improved significantly. The increases in income and earnings have, however, been shortchanged by external factors brought about partially by the financial crisis and its aftermath. Consequently, this begs us to question the extent to which such developments contribute to the overall economic well being of Hmong Americans.

Title: Hmong Americans’ Educational Attainment: Recent Changes and Remaining Challenges. Author: Yang Sao Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Using U.S. Census data from 1990 to 2010, this paper examines Hmong Americans’ language use, English language ability, school attendance, high school dropout rate, and educational attainment. The data reveal significant improvements in Hmong Americans’ English language ability, attendance at higher levels of education, and higher education completion. The data also show that there are differences between states, between males and females, and between age cohorts with respect to certain educational outcomes. Additionally, the gap between Hmong females and males in terms of high school dropouts and educational attainment has narrowed considerably. I discuss the implications of these findings and consider some of the persistent structural challenges that Hmong American students continue to face in K-12 public schools.

Title: Til Divorce Do Us Apart: Sex, State of Residence, and Divorce among Hmong Americans. Author: Nao Xiong and Ger Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Data from the American Community Survey (ACS) 2008-2010wereused to analyze the relationship between current marital status (divorced versus married) and sex,and to examine how this relationship varies for the Hmong across states. Women, when adjusted for age group and state of residence,were not significantly more likely than men to report that they were divorced.Those in Minnesota were almost two times more likely than those in California to report being divorced even after controlling for sex and age group.There was no significant difference in divorce reporting between Wisconsin and California Hmong. The findings suggest that divorced Hmong women,like divorced women in the United States in general, tend to remain unmarried for a longer period of time than their men counterparts.

Title: Health Disparities Research in the Hmong American Community: Implications for Practice and Policy. Authors: Kari Smalkoski, Nancy K. Herther, Zha Blong Xiong, Karen Ritsema, Rebecca Vang and Ri Zheng. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Since the first wave of their arrival to the U.S. over 30 years ago, the Hmong population has grown substantially. Although the focus on health disparities has led to improvements in recent decades in the health of the U.S. population as a whole, many non-white populations continue to lag behind. One such population is the Hmong. This article reviews medical studies since 1990 that focus on Hmong health issues and argues for long-term funding at the state and federal levels as well as immediate support to address the health needs of this significantly growing population. Furthermore, the authors argue that existing anecdotal reports and findings on the Hmong population require greater attention, further study, and a commitment to work for change.

Title: Revisiting 37 Years Later: A Brief Summary of Existing Sources Related to Hmong and their Mental Health Status. Authors: Serge Lee and Jenny Chang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 13, Issue 2. Pagination: 13 pages. Format: PDF File.   

Abstract: This paper discusses the complexities of assessing the current mental illness rate of the Hmong in the United States utilizing existing refereed journal articles as well as other sources. It is not intended to discuss mental health cultural competency practices with Hmong patients, an issue that has been addressed in other articles. The present article aims at assessing the current status of mental illness-related research data among Hmong Americans with the goal of encouraging researchers to develop research designs that will provide more substantive data related to Hmong mental health conditions as well as other correlated variables.

Title: Writing Citizenship: Flexible Forms of Belonging in Kao Kalia Yang’s The Late Homecomer. Author: Aline Lo. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011.  Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 15 pages. Format: PDF File.      

Abstract: This article draws on the idea of a more flexible category of citizenship from Michel Laguerre and Bonnie Honig, arguing that Kao Kalia Yang’s The Latehomecomer presents readers with a displacement narrative that negates national belonging and the traditional myth of immigrant America, and, instead, upholds an idea of self-identification that is based not on the nation-state, but on family continuity and finding refuge in writing.

Title: Political Transmigrants: Rethinking Hmong Political Activism in America. Author: Nengher N. Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011.  Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 47 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Since the initial resettlement of the Hmong in the United States in the mid-1970s, they have maintained strong political and military relationships with the Lao People‘s Democratic Republic (LPDR). Yet, there is little research on that relationship and the involvement of the Hmong in the United States in political developments in Laos. Most works on Hmong political activism have focused on the electoral participation and representation of Hmong Americans in relation to American domestic politics. In this article, using archival, ethnographic, and interview data that have collected between 2006 and 2009 in Laos, Thailand, and the United States, I describe and analyze the non-domestic or transnational form of Hmong American political expression and participation. I argue that Hmong political activism in America not only was transnational from the outset, but that their transnational involvement in political developments in Laos and their relations with the Lao PDR government also had a significant impact on their ethnic politics. Many Hmong political activists made their entry into ethnic politics through the door of transnational politics, and many were motivated by transnational political issues to participate in domestic American politics. By exploring their transnational involvement in political developments in Laos and their relations with the Lao PDR government, we get a more complete and dynamic understanding of Hmong political activism in the United States than is possible by focusing exclusively on domestic and electoral participation. Examining their transnational politics also allows us to see the transnationality of not only their culture, identity, and community but also that of their political activities and aspirations.

Title: Hmong Students in Higher Education and Academic Support Programs. Authors: Soua Xiong and Song E. Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011.  Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Student awareness, usage, and perception of academic support programs were examined among 55 Hmong college students at a large, public western university. Twenty-eight students had participated in one or more ASPs while 27 students had not participated in any ASPs.Those who had participated found the programs to be supportive with an average rating of 7.39 out of 10 (10 being most supportive). The majority of students who did not participate in ASPs reported that they were not aware of ASPs and their services.Results also show that the majority of Hmong college students perceived a lack of time to study, poor study habits, lack of money, lack of motivation, lack of direction on career goals, and poor time management to be obstacles for them in higher education. Based on the findings, it seems ASPs were not able to reach some Hmong students with their outreach efforts. However, those that they were able to reach found academic support services helpful, especially with financial concerns and direction on career goals

Title: The Prevalence of English Monolingualism and Its Association with Generational Status among Hmong Americans, 2005-2009. Authors: Yang Sao Xiong and Nao Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011.  Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Using the American Community Survey‟s multi-year (2005-2009) Public Use Microdata Sample, we estimate the prevalence of English monolingualism and statistically analyze the association between English monolingualism and generational status within the U.S. Hmong population. Our findings show that the odds of speaking only English among the second generation is almost three times more compared to the first generation. Data from the 2009 ACS PUMS further indicate that there is a linear and positive relationship between generational status and English speaking ability. We discuss how English monolingualism, when reinforced by Hmong‟sage structure and immigration pattern, could impact Hmong Americans‟ rate of household linguistic isolation and their maintenance of oral tradition.

Title: Predicting Hmong Male and Female Youth’s Delinquent Behavior: An Exploratory Study. Authors: Zha Blong Xiong and Ju-Ping Huang.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011.  Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: Asian Americans have been viewed as a “model” minority by mainstream Americans for decades.Contrary to the model minority stereotype, however, Asian youth, especially Hmong and other Southeast Asians,are increasingly involved in crimes and delinquent activities.Yet, little research has focused on them, particularly Hmong youth. The present study addressed this gap in the literature by exploring the relative importance of individual, peer, family, and school factors in explaining Hmong youth‟s delinquent behavior in both male and female. Two hundred and six Hmong youth(115 males and 91 females), ages ranged from 11 to25 years old,from Minnesota participated in the survey. The survey results showed that antisocial attitudes, academic achievement, and the lack of the mother‟s monitoring were the three factors that significantly explained youth‟s chances of being involved in delinquent acts regardless of their gender. However, when the youth were examined separately by gender, the results showed significant variations.The study ends with a few strategies offered for parents and school officials to prevent and intervene with delinquent behavior in the Hmong community.

Title:  Commentary: The (H)mong Shamans’ Power of Healing: Sharing the Esoteric Knowledge of a Great Mong Shaman. Author: Jacques Lemoine.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011.  Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: In this work, the author clarifies and provides additional information about his anthropological work over the past several decades with Mong Master Shaman Xyooj Tsu Yob and his disciples. This commentary article is intended as a response to Dr. Nicholas Tapp’s “Perspectives on Hmong Studies” published in Volume 11 of the Hmong Studies Journal.

Title: Video Review: Better Places: The Hmong of Rhode Island a Generation Later. Author: Chia Youyee Vang.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2011.  Additional Source Information: Volume 12. Pagination: 3 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This article provides a review of Better Places: a documentary that follows up with Hmong families who were originally part of a film produced in the early 1980s about the resettlement experiences of Hmong refugees in Providence, Rhode Island.

Title: The Hmong Come to Southern Laos: Local Responses and the Creation of Racialized Boundaries Author: Ian G. Baird.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 38 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: There is a long history of Hmong migrations from the north to south. Most recently, Hmong have begun emerging in the southern-most parts of Laos, including Champasak and Attapeu Provinces, places where they never lived before, and some Hmong have tried to move south from Bolikhamxay to Khammouane Province.Southern Laos would appear to represent anew southern ̳frontier‘ for the Hmong. This article looks at the interactions between the Hmong who have attempted to migrate into southern Laos and the Lao and Mon-Khmer language-speaking peoples they have encountered. Some Hmong movements into southern Laos have been accepted, while others have not. Crucially, negative racialized stereotypes about the Hmong being aligned with anti-government resistance groups, and being inherently destructive of the environment—as unfair as they may be—have influenced the prejudiced responses in southern Laos to the arrival of the Hmong.Others simply see the Hmong as being difficult to get along with and administer(still another unfair stereotype). The cultural practices and habits of some Hmong arrivals have confused and upset some Mon Khmer language-speaking peoples in southern Laos. The movement of the Hmong from the north to the south, and the reactions of others to them, are important for understanding the ways Hmong are geographically positioning themselves, and how others are attempting to construct spaces and associated boundaries designed to restrict them. Thus,the focus of this article is on the reactions of others to the Hmong, and the way particular racialized boundaries have been developed.

Title: Acculturation Processes of Hmong in Eastern Wisconsin. Authors: John Kha Lee and Katherine Green.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This study examines acculturation processes among Hmong who live in Eastern Wisconsin by using the East Asian Acculturation Measure(EAAM), which was developed by Barry (2001). The results indicated that in terms of Acculturation, Hmong ranked highest in integration, then separation, assimilation, and lastly marginalization. Questions on each dimension of integration, separation, assimilation, and marginalization were analyzed and positive correlations were found between the youngest of the generations, the length of residency in the United States, and the ability to speak, read, and write in English. In contrast, the older the age of the participant when they came to the United States had a positive correlation with separation. The ability to speak, read, and write in English had a positive correlation with assimilation, and the older the age of coming to the United States had a positive correlation with marginalization. Assimilation and separation had a positive correlation with marginalization, while integration had a negative correlation with marginalization and a positive correlation with assimilation, and separation had no correlation with marginalization. Results are discussed in regards to previous Hmong acculturation studies.

Title: Access to Adequate Healthcare for Hmong Women: A Patient Navigation Program to Increase Pap Test Screening. Authors:  Penny Lo, Dao Moua Fang, May Ying Ly, Susan Stewart, Serge Lee and Moon S. Chen Jr..  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 29 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This paper describes the development and implementation of a Hmong Cervical Cancer Intervention Program utilizing a patient navigation model to raise cervical cancer awareness for Hmong women through educational workshops and to assist Hmong women in obtaining a Pap test. Out of 402 women who participated in a baseline survey, the Patient Navigation Program was able to enroll 109participantswho had not had a Pap test in the past 3 years and had never had a Pap test.Through utilization of outreach, an awareness campaign and patient navigation support,at least 38percent of 109 participants obtained a Pap test.Overall, 21 workshops and 43 outreach activities were conducted by the Hmong Women’s Heritage Association, leading to 63 percent of those enrolled in the Patient Navigation Program who could be contacted to obtain a Pap test.

Title: A Hmong Birth and Authoritative Knowledge: A Case Study of Choice, Control, and the Reproductive Consequences of Refugee Status in American Childbirth. Author: Faith Nibbs. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: One area in which anthropologists are concerned is in examining what the state of good health consists of from society to society, and what happens when practitioners of western medicine intersect with people who hold other explanations of well being. This paper explores how the western medical practices of childbirth in America are forced on Hmong refugee childbirth, and therefore, used as a continuation of governmentality, or refugee objectification. Ethnographic data is drawn from a case study of Hmong experiences with the birth process in an American hospital setting. Parallels are drawn between refugee resettlement programs which ultimately produce bodies that are objects of the state; and authoritative medical knowledge in childbirth which produces bodies that are objects of medicine. This research suggests that the American birth process becomes yet another site of refugee reprogramming and a struggle between western medicine and the refugee‟s understanding of experience.

Title: Parental Influences on Hmong University Students’ Success. Authors: Andrew J. Supple, Shuntay
Z. McCoy and Yudan Wang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 37 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This study reports findings from a series of focus groups conducted on Hmong American university students. The purpose of the focus groups was to understand how, from the perspective of Hmong American students themselves, acculturative stress and parents influenced academic success. Findings of a thematic analysis centered on general themes across focus group respondents that related to parental socialization, gendered socialization, and ethnic identification. Each identified themes is discussed in reference to gendered patterns of experiences in Hmong American families and in reference to academic success.

Title: Interview: Gran Torino’s Hmong Lead Bee Vang on Film, Race, and Masculinity: Conversations with
Louisa Schein. Author: Louisa Schein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 11 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Bee Vang, of Minneapolis, played the Hmong lead Thao Vang Lor in Clint Eastwood's 2008 Gran Torino. He was sixteen when he shot the film and had no acting training. For 27 days on location in urban Detroit he played before a Hollywood crew opposite an icon of the film industry doing multiple takes of each scene and camera angle. The shoot was full of unexpected twists and turns some of which he recounts in these interchanges with Hmong media expert Louisa Schein of the Departments of Anthropology and Women's and Gender Studies at Rutgers University. Over several conversations, condensed here, Vang and Schein talk about Gran Torino, about acting and film critique, about immigrants and stereotypes, about masculinity and sexuality, and about Vang's vision for what needs to change to address problems of race and inequality in and beyond media worlds.

Title: Commentary: Perspectives on Hmong Studies: Speech by Dr. Nicholas Tapp on Receiving the Eagle
Award at the Third International Conference on Hmong Studies, Concordia University, Saint
Paul, April 10, 2010. Author: Nicholas Tapp. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract:  This article consists of the text of a speech delivered by Dr. Nicholas Tapp on the occasion of receiving the Eagle Award for contributions to Hmong Studies at the Third International Conference on Hmong Studies at Concordia University, Saint Paul on April 10, 2010. The speech discusses how the author became involved in Hmong Studies and his assessment of several key issues confronting researchers studying Hmong culture and Hmong populations around the world.

Title: Commentary: The Hmong and their Perceptions about Physical Disabilities: An Overview and Review of
Selected Literature. Authors: Grace Hatmaker, Helda Pinzon-Perez, Xong Khang and Connie Cha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The Hmong are one of the fastest growing populations in Central California.Hmong refugee families arrived in Fresno in the late 1970s facing a variety of challenges regarding their traditional health beliefs and the customs of mainstream Western biomedicine. Differing and sometimes conflicting perceptions about physical disabilities have resulted in painful misunderstandings between Hmong families and Western health care providers.The aim of this paper is to present a review of some of the Hmong health belief literature concerning physical disabilities in children. It also includes commentaries from those who work with the Hmong families of physically disabled children

Title: Photo Essay: Patterns of Change: Transitions in Hmong Textile Language. Author: Geraldine Craig. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 11. Pagination: 48 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In traditional Hmong life, women produced complex textiles as markers of clan identity and cultural values. Paj ntaub (flower cloth), created by embroidery, appliqué, reverse appliqué, and indigo batik (among the Blue or Green Hmong), were primary transmitters of Hmong culture from one generation to the next over centuries. Clothing, funeral and courtship cloths, baby carriers and hats were designed with traditionally geometric, abstract patterns Hmong could understand as a shared visual language within an oral culture. This photo essay introduces the author’s twenty-five year fascination with paj ntaub and documents a trip to Laos and northern Thailand in November/December 2009 to discover whether story cloths were being produced in Hmong villages in Laos or if story cloths remain a product of refugees only. The researcher also hoped to learn whether traditional Hmong clothing is still produced and worn in the Laos, to observe how Hmong textiles are made and consumed for a tourist market, and to discover possible sources for the dramatic shift in paj ntaub visual language from symbolic abstraction to pictorial representation.

Title: Gran Torino's Boys and Men with Guns: Hmong Perspectives . Authors: Louisa Schein and Va-Megn Thoj. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 52 pages. Format: PDF File. Abstract: This article discusses the Clint Eastwood film Gran Torino in the context of American popular mis-representations of Hmong and from the perspectives of the film‘s Hmong actors and viewers. The analysis begins from the images of Hmong as ―perpetual warrior,‖ ferocious killers ill-fit for American society, and docile fresh-off-the-boat foreigners needing help and protection by white saviors. The bulk of the article presents an interpretation of the recent box office hit Gran Torino radically different from contemporary mainstream response which has centered on Eastwood‘s character and viewed the film mainly as a vision of multicultural inclusion and understanding. This alternate ―ethnotextual approach, reflecting the conversations of a Hmong studies anthropologist and a Hmong filmmaker/activist, includes the perspectives of Hmong involved in creating the film and considers critical response to the final product within the Hmong community. Despite a script that called on them to portray violent gangbanger and hapless Hmong immigrant stereotypes, Hmong actors encourage us to value their creativity in shaping the film through enacting certain roles, no matter how conventionalized, and to expose the film as a white man‘s fantasy

Title: From Miao to Miaozu - Alterity in the Formation of Modern Ethnic Groups. Author: Zhiqiang Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 28 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: In China, the Miao ethnic group has been known for its long and tragic history. This image, however, was formed only during the modern era. Using a historiographical approach, this paper reviews and analyzes the process through which the Chinese Miao emerged as a modern ethnic group. Specifically, it focuses on the transition from `Miao' as a blanket term for non-Han ethnic groups in southern China during the pre-modern period to `Miaozu' as a modern ethnic group, originally constructed in the context of the emergence of Chinese nationalism at the beginning of the 20th century in the context of the domineering `Other' of Han culture and eventuating in the official recognition of fifty-six minority nationalities (shaoshu minzu) in the 1950s. Based on this study, this paper then goes on to a theoretical discussion on the question of alterity in the formation of ethnic groups.

Title: Citation Analysis and Hmong Studies Publications: An Initial Examination. Author:  Nancy K. Herther. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: As a field of study, Hmong Studies has been developing and growing over the past thirty years. Has the field developed to the point of having any clearly defined sets of key journals, publishers, authors, or institutions? Bibliometrics offers a set of tools that allows library and information researchers to look for patterns of publication which might help to answer these questions. In this initial study, using a variety of publications and databases, it was found that the field is still evolving with no clear boundaries or established “best” journals, institutions for research or other clear patterns.

Title: Searching for the Hmong People’s Ethnic Homeland and Multiple Dimensions of Transnational Longing: From the Viewpoint of the Hmong in Laos. Author:  Sangmi Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This paper examines how Hmong people in the diaspora imagine each other and develop diverse and multidimensional types of longing in the absence of a “true” ethnic homeland. Even before the Hmong dispersed around the world after the Vietnam War, they never identified or agreed upon a “true” ethnic homeland. As a result, Hmong people have inevitably developed various other types of longing. The objects of these longings have been conceptually expanded to include a Hmong culture, a powerful leader, and a future time when Hmong will again be reunited.In this sense, I will examine the way Hmong people express their perspectives on their objects of longing in the absence of a “true”ethnic homeland by focusing on the viewpoints of some Hmong people residing in Laos.Based on my observations and analysis,I also propose to rethink the limitations of the dominant view about how Hmong imagine their ethnic homeland. Although current theoretical perspectives of transnationalism and “imagined community”have contributed to an understanding of the Hmong people’s imagination and their diasporic ethnic identity, those views cannot fully explain how Hmong people’s longing is not just associated with the lost homeland but can have multiple directions and meanings.These different types of longing expressed by the Hmong people suggest that diasporic communities can be maintained without a territorial ethnic homeland.

Title: Hmong Political Involvement in St. Paul, Minnesota and Fresno, California.  Author: Yang Lor. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 53 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: Over the past several years, Hmong in the United States have gained prominence for their increasing involvement in politics. Most of the attention has understandably focused on Fresno, California and St. Paul, Minnesota, home to the two largest Hmong populations in this country. While the Hmong communities in both cities are similar in size and have made significant political progress as evidenced by the election of Hmong candidates, the Hmong community in St. Paul has made greater inroads in the political realm.In addition to the elections of two Hmong candidates to the Minnesota State Legislature and two to the St. Paul School Board, the Hmong community in St. Paul has been able to engage local and state governments in Minnesota to address issues that affect the Hmong community. Through interviews, census data, and newspaper coverage of political campaigns, I show that Hmong in St. Paul have achieved greater representation in local and state governments and received greater support from government officials than Hmong in Fresno because Minnesota offers a social, economic, and political context that is favorable to fostering Hmong political involvement. Compared to Hmong in Fresno, Hmong in St. Paul have higher levels of socioeconomic resources and are more visible given their large size relative to other minority groups. They live in a region with consistently high levels of political participation and have political candidates who devote resources to mobilizing the Hmong community. Moreover, the Hmong vote has been critical to the success of Hmong candidates in St. Paul, an indication of the increasing political clout of the Hmong community there and a major reason why politicians in Minnesota are more willing to respond to issues that affect the Hmong community.Overall, this study highlights the importance of local and regional context in understanding the political incorporation of immigrants.

Title: Understanding Barriers to Prevention of ntshav qab zib/nsthaav qaab zib: A Hmong perspective.  Authors: Miguel A. Perez and Chia Thao. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.   

Abstract: The need to decrease health disparities has been widely documented in the professional literature, therefore, it is not surprising that one of the two goals listed in Healthy People 2010 is the reduction of health disparities in ethnic and racial communities in the United States. The research literature, however, shows that the majority of efforts to decrease health disparities have focused on the major racial and ethnic groups in the United State and few if any efforts have focused on the healthcare needs, practices, beliefs, barriers, and other health aspects of the Hmong community.The purpose of this study is to record barriers to addressing diabetes in the Hmong community. Data were collected using Photovoice, a qualitative data collection method which enables participants to record in photo format the issues they experience. Findings from the study identified several barriers to diabetes prevention in the Hmong community. Participants indicate 1) the environment as a major key barrier, 2) personal choices, habits, and life style and, 3) lack of a safe environment to access physical activity as factors contributing to the potential for developing diabetes.

Title: Using Mammography Screening: Hmong Women’s Perceptions and Beliefs.  Author: Pang Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 29 pages. Format: PDF File.    

Abstract: Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths among all women in the United States. Although mammography screening has been shown to be effective in detecting breast cancer, Hmong women, one of the Asian American/Pacific Islander subgroups, have a very low screening rate. The purpose of this study was to explore factors that influence Hmong women‘s willingness to be screened for breast cancer. Grounded Theory methodology guided the analysis of fifteen qualitative interviews with Midwestern Hmong women between the ages of 40-64.Regardless of age, length of US residency, and language spoken, the results showed one core theme and three interrelated themes regarding the women‘s decision to seek mammography screening. The three interrelated themes of Breast Health Messages, Screening Barriers, and Screening Facilitators can have negative and/or positive influences on the core theme of mammography-screening decision-making processes. The first related theme of Breast Health Messages included professional and lay breast health messages. The second related theme, Screening Facilitators,included breast health messages from professionals, abnormal findings, social support, risk for getting breast cancer, doctor‘s recommendations, and insurance. The third related theme, Screening Barriers,identified symptomatic health seeking behavior,instrumental barriers, fear, social influence(which included lay breast health messages), use of traditional Hmong healing practices, embarrassment,and perception of breast cancer risk. This study suggested that the healthcare professionals need to use a culturally sensitive and multi-disciplinary approach to provide breast health education as well as to assess and provide instrumental support, while encouraging social support to influence Hmong women to attain mammography screening.

Title: Commentary: Challenges and Complexity in the Re-Construction of Hmong History.  Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 17 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: In the past 30 years various accounts of Hmong history have emerged from Hmong and non-Hmong scholars working in the United States, other Diaspora countries and Asia. This short commentary paper examines and addresses some of the questions that have arisen from the many versions of Hmong history in China being circulated among the Hmong of the United States.

Title: A Photo Essay of the Hmong Experience at Wat Thamkrabok in Thailand.  Author: Pao Lor. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 41 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: In this photo essay, I share photos and information I gathered from my two visits to the Hmong at Wat Thamkrabok in Thailand in 2004 and 2009. The July 2004 visit was a part of a Fulbright Hays Study Abroad Project, and the January 2009 visit was a part of a study abroad course I led to Thailand. The photos capture segments of Hmong life inside Wat Thamkrabok. These life segments include living conditions, education, employment opportunities,religion, technology,and others. In addition to the photos, I included narratives to provide contextual information and to enhance the substance and significance of the photos. The descriptive information shared in this photo essay came from several sources: the observations I made during the visits, the data and information about the Hmong in Wat Thamkrabok that were shared by the Thai Authorities Task Force 546, and conversations I had with several Hmong individuals I met inside Wat Thamkrabok. My purpose for this photo essay is twofold: one, to share what I saw and to report on the information that was shared with me during my two visits to the Hmong at Wat Thamkrabok, in an effort to capture an important segment of Hmong history and to advance the understanding of the Hmong experience and two, to use the photos to enhance the descriptive data about the Hmong experience in Wat Thamkrabok.

Title: Book Review of The Latehomecomer.  Author: Lisa Dembouski. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 10. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This book review follows Kao Kalia Yang and her family from their beginnings in the jungles of Laos, their years in Thai refugee camps, and their eventual immigration to the United States. The Latehomecomer is an engaging, poignant memoir about a family’s experiences while searching for a place to call ―home. The reviewer offers questions, critique, and highlights from the story including glimpses into the history and culture of Hmong people.

Title: Escape from Harm’s Way: The Experiences of Southeast Asian Elders and their Families.  Authors: Daniel F. Detzner, Aysem R. Senyurekli and Zha Blong Xiong.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 30 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This study uses a life history approach to understand the lived experiences of 40 Southeast Asian elderly refugees who fled from their home countries and resettled in the United States in the late 1970’s and 1980’s. The focus is concentrated on the elders’ narratives of escape. Their experiences are consolidated into motivational elements leading to flight; six dichotomous dimensions of the leave taking; and complicating factors affecting the escape. The results indicate that escapes: (a) are motivated by a multiplicity of overlapping factors; (b) appear to have an impact on health after resettlement; and (c) are complex events where the same generational cohort fleeing from the same conflict, during the same time period, may arrive in the same destination with very different levels of distress. This study aims to develop a framework for understanding the escape narratives of elderly refugees as a way to understand the nature and sources of individual, family, and community distress that often hinders successful integration of refugee populations.

Title: Translating Research Findings Into a Hmong American Children’s Book to Promote Understanding of Persons with Alzheimer’s Disease.  Author: Linda A. Gerdner.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Findings from an ethnographic study identified dementia (i.e., Alzheimer’s disease) as an important but often overlooked issue within the Hmong American community. Elders with dementia often lived in the home of a married son who had children of his own. Children were reported to have difficulty understanding the memory and behavioral changes associated with the progressive disease. This lack of understanding adversely affected the relationship between the child and elder. A bilingual illustrated children’s book entitled Grandfather’s Story Cloth has been developed to address this issue. General themes from the life experiences of family caregivers were used to provide a culturally meaningful storyline. The book introduces the idea of using a story cloth to stimulate Grandfather’s remote memory thereby enhancing communication and understanding between Grandson and Grandfather. The educational value of the book is augmented with discussion questions and answers that support a family based approach to learning. To promote access, the Extendicare Foundation provided funds for the purchase and distribution of 1000 copies of this book to select organizations that serve the Hmong-American community. Initial feedback regarding the educational value and cultural appropriateness of Grandfather’s Story Cloth by members of the Hmong American community, educators, elementary students, librarians, and health care professionals is presented.

Title: Hmong Parental Involvement and Support: A Comparison Between Families of High and Low Achieving High School Seniors.  Authors: John Kha Lee and Katherine Green .  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: The Hmong are some of the newest refugees who have settled in the United States with population estimates around 300,000. Unfortunately research has shown many Hmong children are not as successful in their education as their peers. Parental involvement in education has consistently been shown to impact academic success and attendance in higher education programs. Little is known about Hmong parental involvement in their children’s education process. Therefore, this study was done to compare and contrast the general family characteristics, parenting methods, parental involvement philosophies, parental involvement experiences, and parental education expectations in Hmong families of high school seniors classified as either high academic achievers or low achievers. Students were classified into either higher or lower academic achievement groups based on their high school cumulative GPA. Five students were randomly selected for each group and a qualitative research interview method was used to interview the students and both of their parents (n=30). The findings showed the parents of the higher academic achieving students were younger, had higher levels of education, and had better relationships and trust with the students. Parents from both groups did not have any written rules for their children to follow at home, they mainly became involved in their children’s education during the elementary and middle school years, and they did not have any specific preference of an educational level, career, or school for their children after high school. Recommendations for ways Hmong families can be encouraged to participate more in education are made.

Title: To Tell the Truth.  Author: Jacques Lemoine.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 29 pages. Format: PDF File.   

Abstract: This paper is inspired by the reading of Dr. Lee’s article in Hmong Studies Journal, Vol. 8: “Diaspora and the Predicament of Origins: Interrogating Hmong Postcolonial History and Identity” and my recent, albeit too short visit to Minnesota in order to receive my Eagle Award in Hmong Studies and participate in the Center for Hmong Studies’ Conference: “Cultivating the Past, Interpreting the Present, and Enriching the Future”, at Concordia University, Saint Paul (April 12, 2008). There I met three fascinating Miao scholars from China.1 There was some confrontation in our respective approach to (H)mong2 studies from opposite viewpoints: their, the Miao imagined nation, mine, the (H)mong transnational ethnic group. Once more, I have the feeling that it is the duty of a scholar of my generation to see that (H)mong studies avoid the political and scholastic fantasies of the time, and keep progressing in the only right direction: scientific knowledge. I deal here with three issues: a) the recent development of (H)mong studies in China, b) the content and meaning of a so-called “Hmong/Miao transnationality”, c) the faithfulness to (H)mong culture.

Title: Qha Ke (Guiding the Way) From the Hmong Ntsu of China, 1943.  Author: Nicholas Tapp.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This article provides the text of Ruey Yih-Fu's 1943 collected version of the Qhuab Ke, or Song of Opening the Way, sung at a Hmong funeral in China. An English translation is provided based on the Hmong and Chinese translations given by Ruey, together with extensive notes and details about the Song. Ruey's own IPA-based transliteration is mainly kept, with some modifications in view of RPA. It appears to be one of the earliest and most original versions of the Qhuab Ke we have.

Title: The Power of the Spoken Word in Defining Religion and Thought: A Case Study.  Author:  Hilary Watt.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 25 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This essay explores the relationship between religion and language through a literature review of animist scholarship and, in particular, a case study of the animist worldview of Hmong immigrants to the United States. An analysis of the existing literature reveals how the Hmong worldview (which has remained remarkably intact despite widely dispersed settlements) both informs and is informed by the Hmong language. Hmong is contrasted with English with regard to both languages’ respective affinities to the scientific worldview and Christianity. I conclude that Hmong and other "pre-scientific" languages have fundamental incompatibilities with the Western worldview (which both informs and is informed by dualistic linguistic conventions of modern language, a modern notion of scientific causality, and Judeo-Christian notions of the body/soul dichotomy). This incompatibility proves to be a major stumbling block for Western scholars of animist religion, who bring their own linguistic and cultural biases to their scholarship.

Title: A Critique of Timothy Vang’s Hmong Religious Conversion and Resistance Study.  Authors: Nao Xiong and Yang Sao Xiong.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.   

Abstract: We review Timothy Vang’s dissertation on the growth and decline of the Hmong Christian church. We argue that Vang’s arguments are methodologically and theoretically flawed. Furthermore, we try to show that his dissertation is not so much an objective analysis of Hmong religious adaptation, but rather an attempt to define and subjugate certain Hmong cultural and religious beliefs and practices as backward and inferior to Christianity. We suggest that it is these kinds of problematic arguments, often couched in academic language, that further perpetuate misinterpretations and misrepresentations about “culture” and “religion” in Hmong American communities.

Title: Adolescents’ Problem Behaviors and Parent-Adolescent Conflicts in Hmong Immigrant Families.  Authors: Zha Blong Xiong, Arunya Tuicomepee and Kathyrn B. Rettig.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.   

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to investigate whether Hmong adolescent problem behaviors and school difficulties influence parent-adolescent conflicts above and beyond the variables of adolescents’ embarrassment about their parents, the acculturation gap between parents and adolescents, and age of adolescents. The sample included 209 Hmong adolescents living in Minnesota. There were 123 males and 86 females, ages 12 to 25 years. A survey was administered in several community agencies to adolescents that included their perspectives on the frequency and intensity of parent-adolescent disagreements on 28 issues and the problem behaviors of delinquent peer affiliation, gang involvement, truancy, and school performance. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated the set of problem-behavior independent variables explained 26% of the variance in the frequency-intensity of father-adolescent conflicts and 21% of the variance in the frequency-intensity of mother-adolescent conflicts. Ideas for parent education in the Hmong community are discussed.

Title: A Visit to the Hmong of Asia: Globalization and Ethnicity at the Dawn of the 21st Century.  Author: Kou Yang.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 50 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This paper consists of observations made from my two and a half month visit to the Hmong in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and China. As such, it contains two parts. The first part is my observation of the Hmong in Asia and their common issues. The second part is a photo essay of the visit to the Hmong in Asia, covering issues discussed in the paper. Although I did visit other subgroups of the Miao, such as the Hmu in Guizhou and Qo Xiong in Hunan, this paper covers only the Hmong, whom I hope will be better presented and discussed as a result of my work. Moreover, the Hmong live in all the above mentioned countries, whereas other sub-groups of the Miao live only in China. This paper highlights the socio-economic conditions and educational experiences of the Hmong in the above mentioned countries. It also covers my observations of Hmong civic engagement and other aspects of their social and political lives in the respective countries.

Title: A Visit to the Hmong of Asia: Globalization and Ethnicity at the Dawn of the 21st Century (Photo Essay).  Author: Kou Yang.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 9. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper consists of observations made from my two and a half month visit to the Hmong in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and China. As such, it contains two parts. The first part is my observation of the Hmong in Asia and their common issues. The second part is a photo essay of the visit to the Hmong in Asia, covering issues discussed in the paper. Although I did visit other subgroups of the Miao, such as the Hmu in Guizhou and Qo Xiong in Hunan, this paper covers only the Hmong, whom I hope will be better presented and discussed as a result of my work. Moreover, the Hmong live in all the above mentioned countries, whereas other sub-groups of the Miao live only in China. This paper highlights the socio-economic conditions and educational experiences of the Hmong in the above mentioned countries. It also covers my observations of Hmong civic engagement and other aspects of their social and political lives in the respective countries.

Title: Political Behavior and Candidate Emergence in the Hmong-American Community.  Author: Steven Doherty.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007.  Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 35 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This research focuses on the major social, cultural and political factors that have shaped Hmong-American political behavior in the United States and also more specifically on the issue of Hmong-American candidates who have run for electoral office. Electoral turnout and the partisan direction of Hmong-American voters will receive some general examination. Special attention is also given to the unusually rapid emergence of candidates for electoral office from the Hmong-American community in the Upper Midwest, and the specific motivations and strategies of Hmong-American electoral candidates.

Title: Diaspora and the Predicament of Origins: Interrogating Hmong Postcolonial History and Identity.  Author: Gary Yia Lee.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007.  Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper examines two basic issues that have been of major concern to the Hmong in the diaspora: (1). What is their historical and geographic origin; and (2) are the Hmong part of the Miao nationality in China, and should they accept being known under this generic name? There have been many theories about where the Hmong originally came from, ranging from Mesopotamia in the Middle East during Biblical times, the North Pole, Siberia, to Mongolia and China. This paper consolidates these many propositions with their supporting evidence, and draws its own surprising conclusion as to the real location of the original homeland of the Hmong. Depending on what they regard as their origin and which history they wish to be aligned with, the Hmong may have to reconsider being known as Miao or Meo, a name which most have vehemently rejected because of its derogatory connotation, especially among the more politically conscious Hmong now living in Western countries.

Title: The self-rated social well-being of Hmong college students in Northern California.  Author: Serge C. Lee.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007.  Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 19 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper discusses the self-rated social well-being of a small sample of Hmong college students in Northern California. Social well-being is defined as the state of social and cultural adaptive functioning, and includes such concepts as feeling prosperous, being healthy, and being happy. Fifty Hmong college students between the ages of 18 to 30 who either left Southeast Asia as children or were born in the United States participated in the study. Overall, 41% said that the future looks bright for them and 72% said that their living standard would be better off five years from now.

Title: Constructing a Social Problem: Suicide, Acculturation and the Hmong.  Authors: Machiline Xiong and Paul Jesilow.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007.  Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 43 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Between September 1998 and May 2001, eight Hmong teenagers took their own lives in one urban community. Newspaper accounts attempted to establish the suicides as an outgrowth of problems brought about by the Hmong immigration to the United States. In particular, the clash between the Hmong and American cultures was fingered as the cause of the suicides. Other explanations were ignored. The teenage Hmong suicides were depicted as a problem that needed addressing and identified the school district and mental health facilities as the appropriate institutions to deal with the problem. In-depth interviews were conducted with individuals either directly familiar with the events or positioned to provide the best information and overview on the issue. We conclude that the emphasis for the suicides was strongly associated with the Hmong’s status as immigrants in order to convince the Hmong that they needed to acculturate, in particular to accept and utilize mental health facilities. We illustrate that suicide can be a point of opportunity for those seeking to increase a group’s level of attachment to society.

Title:  The Transition of Wat Tham Krabok Hmong Children to Saint Paul Public Schools: Perspectives of Teachers, Principals, and Hmong Parents.  Authors: Bic Ngo, Martha Bigelow and Kyla Wahlstrom.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007.  Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 35 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In 2004, with the closing of the last Hmong refugee camp, Wat Tham Krabok, the latest group of Hmong refugees resettled to the US. To facilitate the language transition of approximately 1,000 school-aged newcomer Hmong children, the Saint Paul Public Schools, developed and established Transitional Language Centers. In this article, we examine the experiences and perspectives of principals, teachers and educational assistants who worked with newcomer Hmong children in the newly-established Transitional Language Centers and well-established Language Academy programs. We also elucidate the experiences of Hmong parents with the schools that served their children. Our research offers insights into the important work of the Transitional Language Centers as well as the need to better support newcomer Hmong parents.

Title: Diabetes Knowledge, Beliefs, and Treatments in the Hmong Population: An Exploratory Study.  Authors: Miguel A. Perez and Koua Cha.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007.  Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Diabetes mellitus, a chronic health condition, affecting over 18 million Americans has been found to disproportionally affect members of minority groups. To-date, limited research has been conducted to understand the etiology of the disease in the Hmong community many of whom migrated to the United States from Southeast Asia. The purpose of this study was to investigate knowledge, beliefs, and treatment of diabetes in the Hmong community in Fresno County. Thirty-three participants between the age of 18 and 65 participated in this survey which included qualitative and quantitative questions. Findings from this survey revealed that the majority of study participants had no knowledge of the disease. Results from the survey also revealed misconceptions about the disease (e.g., believing a person can catch the disease by eating too many sweet foods). The study also revealed that the majority of study participants utilize traditional Hmong remedies such as herbs, including plants and tree roots for diabetes treatments.

Title: Preliminary Study on Thalassemia Screening and Genetic Counseling in Selective Hmong People in Saraburi Province, Thailand.  Authors:  Pa Vang,  Onuma Zongrum,  Ratana Sindhuphak and Nikorn Dusitsin Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007.  Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 19 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Preliminary Study on Thalassemia Screening and Genetic Counseling in Selective Hmong People in Saraburi Province, Thailand by Pa Vang, RN, RCS, BSN., Onuma Zongrum, M.Sc., Ratana Sindhuphak, PhD., and Nikorn Dusitsin, MD., Hmong Studies Journal 8: 1-19. 2ABSTRACT Thalassemia is a gene-linked disease that can cause serious health problems because it can lead to the destruction of red blood cells. Studies have shown that there is a high prevalence of thalassemia in Southeast Asia. The Institute of Health Research, Chulalongkorn University developed a successful “Module” to screen for thalassemia in the Thai population, however, it has not been implemented in the minority population in Thailand. In this study, we investigated the feasibility of the newly developed educational and thalassemia screening program with the Hmong population. The primary aim of this study was to test this program. The secondary aim was to determine the prevalence of thalassemia in the Hmong and provide education. A third aim was to determine the reliability of two different screening methods in the Hmong population. A pre-test and post-test design was used; participants (N=12) were individuals residing in Thailand with the ability to read English and between the ages 18-50. The participants met twice with the researchers to complete the program. The first contact consisted of assessing participants’ knowledge about thalassemia, providing thalassemia information and education about genetic counseling, and drawing blood samples. The second contact consisted of assessing knowledge, providing a written report of individual blood sample results and counseling. The initial interview revealed that the majority of the participants (82%) did not know anything about thalassemia prior to participation. The program was easy to understand by most participants (90%). Of the eleven Hmong participants, two tested positive for being a possible carrier for thalassemia. In order to reduce the prevalence of thalassemia, it is necessary to engage in risk reduction health services. The modified screening method proved to be as effective as the standard method. Therefore, the program can expand and be used in other regional populations with low cost.

Title:  An Assessment of the Hmong American New Year and Its Implications for Hmong-American Culture.  Author: Kou Yang.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007.  Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 32 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This author attended the first day of the 2005-06 Hmong New Year in Fresno, which was held during the week of December 26 to 31, 2005; and found it to be strongly influenced by commercial, political and informational/educational activities. This was the 30th annual Hmong New Year event celebrated in the United States and it appears to have developed itself into a unique Hmong American festival. It included many elements and traditions from the pre-1975 New Year of the Hmong of Laos. This includes the youth displaying their Hmong traditional costumes, the ball tossing, and the singing of traditional Hmong songs. On the other hand, this New Year event was also dominated by commercial, entertainment, political and informational/educational activities that appeared to be influenced by the American and Western concepts of the market economy, technology and freedom of expression. The Hmong New Yyear in the United States has become a festival that embraces two cultures, nurtured by the Hmong Diaspora and the long-time Hmong strengths of adaptability and flexibility.

Title: Financial Management in Hmong Immigrant Families: Change and Adaptation.  Authors: Pa Nhia D. Yang and Catherine A. Solheim.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2007.  Additional Source Information: Volume 8. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This study examined family financial management in the Hmong community through the analysis of 11 in-depth interviews with Hmong professionals who worked in the area of finance. The findings revealed that as the Hmong made the transition from an agricultural economy in Laos to the complex economic system in the United States, they have learned to adapt to their environment. First generation immigrants continue to live fairly simple lifestyles and have maintained their strong value of saving money. The 1.5 generation integrates the Hmong value of saving with their knowledge about the U.S. financial system, resulting in savvy financial investments. The 2nd generation, born and raised in the U.S., has been primarily influenced by the U.S. consumer culture, resulting in perceiving wants as needs. Thus spending is a higher priority than saving.

Title:  'Die Another Day': A qualitative analysis of Hmong experiences with kidney stones.  Authors: Kathleen A. Culhane-Pera and Mayseng Lee.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: Background: A chart review at a urological office revealed that Hmong patients present with higher rates of kidney stones, uric acid stones, and complications from kidney stones than non-Hmong patients. In order to ultimately redress this health disparity, a conference of Hmong and non-Hmong health care providers decided that we needed to first understand the pertinent social, cultural, economic, and biological factors contributing to the disparity. This research project sought to elicit Hmong patients and family members’ explanatory models, decision-making processes, and experiences with the health care system. Methods: We conducted in–depth interviews with 10 Hmong kidney stone patients, 11 family members of 9 patients, and 4 traditional healers. All 10 patients had received urological interventions, including ureteroscopy (8), percutaneous lithotomy (5) and nephrectomy (2). Some patients had postponed medical assistance (6) and had refused procedures (4). We qualitatively analyzed the transcribed and translated interviews with an Excel spread sheet and N6 computer software. Results were discussed with patients and a community advisory council. Results: Hmong concepts of kidney function and explanatory models of kidney stones are a blend of traditional and biomedical concepts. Kidney stones are understood as acute health problems caused by hard substances in water and food that stick to the kidney, which weak kidneys cannot excrete. Kidney stone sufferers do not know they have stones until they pass a stone or they see stones on X-rays, as pain or hematuria are non-specific symptoms. They prefer medications, including herbal medicines, to invasive urological procedures. In making decisions about urological interventions, Hmong patients balance fear of disease (pain and renal failure) with fear of doctors (complications from interventions and anesthesia). While patients have variable balance points to accept interventions, the basic philosophy of “die another day” captures people’s preference to act today so as to postpone “death” ---whether by disease or procedure – until tomorrow. Conclusions: These findings identify Hmong patients and family’s experiences with this health disparity. This information could be used to increase the Hmong community and patients’ knowledge of the disease and decrease their fear of urological interventions. Urologists, primary care providers and community health educators could educate the Hmong community and patients about the recurrent and nearly asymptomatic but potentially life-threatening nature of kidney stones, and encourage early diagnosis of renal stones. health care workers should make institutional changes that could increase trusting relationships and decrease patients’ fears of providers and procedures.

Title: Learning from the experiences of Hmong mental health providers.  Author: Linda Gensheimer.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This article is a condensed version of a doctoral dissertation studying Hmong mental health providers. The central research question for this study was: What is the meaning of being a Hmong mental health provider? 11 Hmong mental health providers were interviewed about their experiences. Interviewees were asked to describe specific experiences while doing this work. Interviews were audio taped and transcribed into text narratives. The methodology for conducting this research and analyzing the text was derived from the field of hermeneutic phenomenology. Five major themes emerged: (a) The clash; (b) I call him uncle; (c) Deciphering the code through Hmong embeddedness; (d) Tshuaj vwm (crazy drugs); and (e) In my heart I can see that it happened that way. Practical implications for educators and those working in the field of mental health are presented.

Title: Coming Home? The Integration of Hmong Refugees from Wat Tham Krabok, Thailand into American Society.  Author: .Grit Grigoleit.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: In December 2003, the U.S. State Department officially announced the acceptance of roughly 15,000 Hmong refugees from Wat Tham Krabok, Thailand, into the United States of America. The Hmong refugees were scheduled to be resettled for family reunification in established Hmong communities. As social science research on migration indicates, the existence of ethnic communities is crucial for a successful adaptation to a host society for newcomers. Ethnic communities thereby serve as a buffer zone and provide initial assistance, which is especially important when governmental integration measures are not sufficient. In the case of the Hmong refugee resettlement, the U.S. economic and social incorporation efforts were inefficient, due to cutbacks in U.S. Federal funding and welfare reforms, causing a greater reliance on the receiving Hmong communities. This raises a number of questions about how much an ethnic community can absorb and is able to bear in order to fulfill the newcomers’ needs. What are the limits and how does this affect the initial integration of the newcomers?

Title: "‘Why Would We Want Those Students Here?": Bridges and Barriers to Building Campus Community Partnerships".  Authors: Vincent K. Her and Mary Louise Buley-Meissner.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 43 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: The Hmong American Studies Initiative (HASI) at our Midwestern university had the promise and potential to become one of the first comprehensive Hmong American, community-supported academic programs in the U.S. Through four years of work to start and develop this program (2002-2006), we have learned many lessons regarding bridges and barriers to building campus-community partnerships. Here we highlight the benefits of HASI and the underlying politics that, in our view, have determined funding decisions and influenced campus-community relations. Included in this discussion are insights gained from dozens of meetings with Hmong American community leaders and students, university faculty and administrators, as well as personal interviews and group planning sessions. Drawing on our experiences during this multi-year project, we will share what we have done, what we have learned and where we are now. In the process, we would like to raise a timely question: Is it possible to build an academic program that seriously, substantively takes into account the values and perspectives of an ethnic community?

Title: Dreaming Across the Oceans: Globalization and Cultural Reinvention in the Hmong Diaspora.  Author:Gary Y. Lee.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: The Hmong in Laos did not have any commercially produced media until after 1975 when 200,000 of them became refugees and were resettled in Western countries. Since then, they have produced many Hmong music cassettes, video documentaries and movies in America, Laos and Thailand for the eager consumption of the older members of the Hmong diaspora. These modern songs and videos often allude to aspects of Hmong life and culture in Asia which are missing in the new life in the West. This emphasis on "images' and texts from the past arises from a deep nostalgia for the homeland, the trauma of war and their relatively recent forced departure, guilt over those left behind, access to capital and modern media technology, and more importantly a world-wide market. It is argued that these moving video images and new singing voices constitute a form of cultural reinvention that connects the Hmong together as a global community, and brings them a new changing identity, a new level of transnational group consciousness both in the diaspora and in the homeland.

Title: The Texas Two-Step, Hmong Style: A Delicate Dance Between Culture and Ethnicity.  Author: Faith Nibbs.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 34 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Over the last thirty years since relocation, individual Hmong refugee communities in America have evolved with varying needs and outcomes adding to their complexity and diversity in the United States. There is a noted lack of research that examines these factors calling for further study to help understand the role of locality in the adjustment and diversity of refugees. This research begins a discussion on the unique Hmong adaptation in Texas. Unique and sometimes contradictory local factors deriving from the socio-political environment of Texas have helped to shape a relatively small, but distinctively cosmopolitan community. This paper argues that Texan economic, environmental, and political differences have forged uncharacteristic understandings and challenge conventional conceptions of what it means to be Hmong.

Title: Food Preparation, Practices, and Safety In The Hmong Community.  Authors: Miguel A. Pérez, Long Julah Moua, and Helda Pinzon-Perez..  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: Foodborne illnesses are syndromes that are acquired as a result of eating foods that contain sufficient quantities of poisonous substances or pathogens. Cultural practices place the Hmong at an increased risk for food borne illnesses resulting from improper food handling, preparation, and storage. The risk for illness is further complicated by the fact that the Hmong have very limited knowledge about food-borne disease and they find themselves in a situation in which they cannot control the space in the house available for food preparation. Data for this qualitative study were collected from 25 Hmong individuals aged 18 and over residing in Fresno, California. Participants in this study did not appear to understand the direct relationship between bacteria and food borne illnesses. Similarly, study participants were more likely to report reliance on traditional medicine to address foodborne illnesses. Results from this study indicate a need to reach the Hmong community with culturally appropriate messages relating to food preparation and practice. Messages must acknowledge the role of food in cultural celebrations, while seeking to decrease the risk for foodborne illnesses.

Title: Knowledge of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Among Hmong Populations In Central California.  Authors: Teng Vang and Helda Pinzon-Perez..  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: The prevalence of nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) is high and the incidence is increasing among the Hmong community. To date, there have been few studies on NPC and other cancers in the Hmong population. The purpose of this study was to measure the knowledge of a rural Hmong community in California in regards to nasopharyngeal cancer. A questionnaire that evaluated knowledge of nasopharyngeal cancer was developed and given to 145 Hmong participants. The participants’ knowledge varied with age and educational level but not with gender. Middle-aged generations had the highest level of knowledge on nasopharyngeal cancer. In contrast, low knowledge of NPC was revealed in the older generations. Participants with no school were the least knowledgeable about nasopharyngeal cancer. Those participants with the highest formal education were most knowledgeable about the disease. Hmong males and females are both knowledgeable of nasopharyngeal cancer. This study provides insights for public health practitioners regarding culturally-sensitive strategies to control the increase of NPC in Hmong populations.

Title: Developing Culturally Sensitive Parent Education Programs for Immigrant Families: The Helping Youth Succeed Curriculum.  Authors: Zha Blong Xiong, Daniel F. Detzner, Zoe Hendrickson Keuster, Patricia A. Eliason, and Rose Allen.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 24 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This paper describes the process by which the Helping Youth Succeed (HYS) curriculum was developed for Cambodian, Hmong, Lao, and Vietnamese immigrants in the United States to help address and minimize conflicts between immigrant parents and their adolescent children. A detailed explanation of this model is provided to encourage the development of additional culturally specific parent education curricula for other immigrant/refugee groups and/or diverse populations.

Title: The Meeting with Guanyin, the Goddess of Mercy: A Case Study of Syncretism in the Hmong System of Beliefs  Author: Kao-Ly Yang.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 42 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: The purpose of this case study is to shed light on the identity of the spirit of fertility called Lady Kaying –Niam Nkauj Kab Yeeb—, its religious origin and the general processes of borrowing her from other cultures within the Hmong culture. Hmong popular beliefs pertaining to Kaying reveal that Kaying is in fact the Chinese Goddess of Mercy Guanyin. She was imported from Mahayana Buddhism by the Hmong people of China who had retained her roles of the “Bestower of Children", the “Guardian Angel” or the "Conductor of the Dead Children". An analysis of the process of borrowing of the Chinese deity into the Hmong pantheon shows that Lady Kaying overlaps with an ancient spirit, the “Ancestor Spirit of Fertility” or Niam Poj Dab Pog. This case study demonstrates that the processes of borrowing are selective, integrative and comprehensive: some traits or fragments were taken from Buddhism and incorporated into the Hmong beliefs through a superimposing of a Hmong pre-existing system of beliefs.

Title: From a Refugee Camp to the Minnesota State Senate: A Case Study of a Hmong American Woman’s Challenge.  Author: Taeko Yoshikawa.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2006.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This paper explores the contested nature of Hmong women’s traditional roles and the recent emergence of Hmong American women leaders by discussing Senator Mee Moua, who was elected to the Minnesota State Legislature in January 2002. She became the first Hmong American state legislator in the United States.1 The family and kinship system are the backbone of the Hmong community, around which Hmong culture is organized. The Hmong recognize kinship through the male line, and the household is the basic economic unit in the patriarchal Hmong social system.2 This study was intended to find out how Mee Moua perceives her identity in working with her constituents and the Hmong people in her community, why the patriarchal Hmong community in St. Paul supported Mee Moua’s campaign, and how she earned the broad support of a diverse constituency in defeating a candidate that had been handpicked by St. Paul’s mayor. I argue that ethnic identity and the presentation of individuality as “Mee Moua” combined to make this Hmong American woman a successful bridge between two distinctive cultures

Title: Who is Hmong? Questions and Evidence from the U.S. Census.  Authors: Wayne Carroll and Victoria Udalova.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This paper explores the boundaries of the Hmong community as measured by different categories in 2000 U.S. census data. Following careful assessment of detailed Census data, the authors conclude that the usual criterion used to identify a person in the data as Hmong is too narrow, and that a broader, more inclusive definition more accurately delineates the Hmong ethnic group. The authors propose that anyone who reported in the Census that his or her race, ancestry, or language was Hmong should be included in the Hmong community. This more inclusive method provides evidence that the Hmong population enumerated by the 2000 U.S. census was about 18% larger than the figure that is usually reported.

Title: Hmong and Lao Refugee Women: Reflections of a Hmong-American Woman Anthropologist. Author: Dia Cha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 35 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: In 1992, Ms. Dia Cha – then a graduate student in anthropology at Northern Arizona University – traveled to Chieng Kham Refugee and Napho Repatriation Camps in Thailand, and the village of Ban KM 52, in Vientiane Province, Laos, to research issues concerning the repatriation to Laos of Lao Lum and Hmong women refugees. This article, originally written upon the return from these travels and in partial fulfillment of the requirements for her Master of Arts degree in Applied Anthropology, considers the findings made and the insights achieved on this journey of discovery. In particular, the work discusses changes and continuity in the lives of Lao Lum and Hmong refugee women in the camps. Also addressed in considerable detail is the impact of the author’s status as an educated Hmong-American woman and former refugee on her interactions with female and male informants residing in the two refugee camps. Ms. Cha, who spent much of her early life in such refugee camps as are herein described, has, in the intervening period, become Dr. Dia Cha, Associate Professor of Anthropology and Ethnic Studies at St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, Minnesota, USA. The research project she describes was funded by the United Nations Development Fund for Women and executed by the American Friends Service Committee (The Quaker Services). Ms. Jacquelyn Chagnon joined Ms. Cha during the second phrase of the research, in Napho Repatriation Center, and later in Laos; however, the following article, produced originally in 1992, was written solely by Ms. Cha.

Title: Hmong Resettlement in French Guiana. Author: Patrick F. Clarkin. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: Within the Hmong refugee diaspora, the Hmong of French Guiana are fairly unique in that many have achieved economic autonomy through market farming while also residing in rural, ethnically homogeneous villages that help to preserve cultural and linguistic traditions. This article explores some observations made over a three-month period in 2001 in French Guiana regarding the adjustment of Hmong villagers since first being resettled in 1977. Results from formal questionnaires conducted with local villagers (n = 180) revealed that more Hmong in French Guiana had lower rates of high blood pressure, were more satisfied with where they lived, and had less desire to return to Laos compared to a sample of Hmong in the United States (n = 108).

Title: The Myth of Sonom, the Hmong King. Author: Robert Entenmann. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This paper discusses the inaccurate designation of Sonom, an important figure in 18th century Chinese history as a "Hmong king." The myth of Sonom as a Hmong historical figure has gained currency through its inclusion in several widely read written works related to Hmong-Americans published over the past decade. The article clarifies the actual historical identity of Sonom and the likely route by which he became misidentified by some writers as being of Hmong origin.

Title: Hmong Cosmology: Proposed Model, Preliminary Insights. Author: Vincent K. Her. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 25 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Is there an underlying structure to Hmong cosmology? What are its components? And how might these interrelate? In this paper, I will show that the Hmong cosmos consists of three separate realms and that these are connected together by the cycle of the human soul. Using zaaj qhuabke, I will trace the journey of the deceased and look at how ritual movement is expressive of human agency, narrative experience and community history. My insights are based on primary fieldwork research carried out for a doctoral dissertation on Hmong funeral rites in the Midwest.

Title: The Shaping of Traditions: Agriculture and Hmong Society. Author: Gary Yia Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article argues that throughout Hmong history, Hmong agriculture and the associated economic system have been determining forces affecting and giving rise to many social customs and religious beliefs. The paper provides numerous historical and contemporary examples of how Hmong agriculture practices in Asia have shaped important aspects of Hmong culture and religious beliefs.

Title: What is the actual number of the (H)mong in the World. Author: Jacques Lemoine. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 8 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This paper synthesizes the state of knowledge about the size of the (H)mong population in various regions of the world. Particular attention is paid to clarifying what is known about the number of (H)mong as opposed to Miao in China, an issue which has been associated with considerable confusion. The author concludes by deriving hypothetical estimates of the actual number of (H)mong throughout the world based upon available information.

Title: Hmong Refugee’s Death Fugue. Author: Sheng-mei Ma. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The author of this literary analysis pieces together accounts from oral histories, academic literature, popular works and Hmong storycloths to describe the “death fugue” associated with the early narratives of the Hmong refugee experience in Southeast Asia and the United States.

Title: Continuing the promise: Recruiting and preparing Hmong-American educators for Central Wisconsin.
Authors: Leslie McClain-Ruelle and Kao Xiong. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article presents consideration of the central factors affecting recruitment, retention and preparation of Hmong pre-service teachers in Central Wisconsin. The article includes a brief historical examination of the immigration of the Hmong population into the United States, a consideration of the Hmong culture as it affects recruitment and retention of pre-service teachers and evidence related to successes and struggles experienced by Project Forward students in the teacher preparation programs at the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point.

Title: Southeast Asian Fathers’ Experiences with Adolescents: Challenges and Change. Authors: Zha Blong Xiong and Daniel F. Detzner. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine the fathering experiences of Southeast Asian immigrant men who are parenting their adolescent children in the United States. Focus group discussions were conducted with twenty-two Cambodian, Hmong, Lao, and Vietnamese immigrant fathers. The study found that most fathers wanted to become closer to their children and be more involved in their children’s daily activities. Common fathering roles such as the family provider, teacher, supervisor, and disciplinarian also emerged from the analyses. Parent educators, social service providers, policy makers, and practitioners who work with Southeast Asian families should understand the complex and critical roles of fathers and include them when designing, developing, and delivering programs and services for families.

Title: Research Notes from the Field: Tracing the Path of the Ancestors – A Visit to the Hmong in China by Kou Yang. Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2005.  Additional Source Information: Volume 6. Pagination: 38 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This paper consists of personal research notes collected by a Hmong-American scholar during a 2004 visit to Miao communities in China. The author provides his personal observations related to conditions in Miao villages and cultural and social exchanges between Hmong-Americans and Miao. A short related discussion is provided of what is known of Miao history and the status of Miao in contemporary China. The author supplements his informal observations with photos taken during the visit.

Title: Medical, Racist, and Colonial Constructions of Power: Creating the Asian American Patient and the Cultural Citizen in Anne Fadiman's The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. Author: Monica Chiu. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004.  Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 36 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This essay looks at the values attributed or denied to "culture" (medical culture, history, Southeast Asian refugees, Asian American cultural citizenship) in the care surrounding a Hmong child diagnosed with spirit loss, according to Hmong interpretation, or epilepsy, as defined by Western medicine. In my reading of Anne Fadiman's The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down:A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures, medical, colonial, and authorial knowledge often converge in devastating ways, linking the seemingly disparate discourses of war, refugee medicine, and the model minority through colonial representations. I also look at the book's lacuna in its investigation of cultural collisions, finding that its approaches to reporting the medical-cultural conflict from a seemingly neutral position-one balancing the reported views of the epileptic child's parents and the views of her medical practitioners often reinscribe the Hmong subjects into the very colonial parameters from which the book attempts to extract them.

Title: Hmong Transnational Identity: the Gendering of Contested Discourses. Author: Roberta Julian. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004.  Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: Hmong women throughout the diaspora are increasingly expressing ‘what it means to be Hmong’ and ‘what it means to be a Hmong woman’ in a variety of media that constitute western popular culture. At the same time, Hmong women residing in different nation-states live Hmong femininity differently. This paper explores the contested nature of Hmong identity through an exploration of discourses and practices at global and local levels, with a particular emphasis on their gendered dimensions. The paper argues that global narratives of Hmong identity are analytically distinct from, but empirically intertwined with, the constructions of Hmong identities across transnational social spaces. Through a focus on Hmong in Australia and the United States, the paper highlights the significance of place, generation, gender, religion,class and status as axes of contestation and debate in the construction of Hmong identities.

Title:  Caught Between Cultures: Hmong Parents in America's Sibling Society. Author: Tamara L. Kaiser. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004.  Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: Based on a qualitative study of the Hmong Community in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, this paper addresses the conflict between the traditionally hierarchical and patriarchal Hmong culture and those aspects of American culture that elevate freedom and equality over,not only patriarchy, but over hierarchy in general. Although this conflict has forced the Hmong community to change in some positive ways, it also creates great challenges for parents and their children. Distorted values of “freedom” and “equality,” promoted by much of American culture, compromise the ability of many Hmong to be effective parents. A comparison of traditional Hmong parenting with what author Robert Bly calls America’s “sibling society” demonstrates that both Hmong and mainstream families and society are hurt by a general rejection of authority and would greatly benefit from recognizing the value of hierarchy based on experience, genuine accomplishment and wisdom.

Title: Hmong-American K-12 Students and the Academic Skills Needed for a College Education: A Review of the Existing Literature and Suggestions for Future Research.  Author: Christopher T. Vang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004.  Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 31 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This research literature review article examines the factors that affect academic success or failure of Hmong-American K-12 students to provide some insights into the academic challenges and complexity they still face today in the American educational system. Existing studies indicate that many Hmong-American students are academically underprepared for postsecondary studies since they are lagging in the academic skills needed for success. Academic and cultural background issues are discussed to help differentiate successful students from less successful students.

Title: Hmong Parents' Perceptions on Instructional Strategies for Educating their Children with Disabilities.  Author: Halee Vang and Manuel T. Barrera. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004.  Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This article reports how Hmong parents were involved in an educational research study to examine their views on a structured reading instruction protocol developed in English and then translated into Hmong for Hmong children identified with disabilities. Six Hmong female parents were interviewed using a semi-structured interview. The responses from the interviews revealed that Hmong parents of disabled children are not only very concerned about seeking education equity, but that they need more communication and knowledge about their children’s education.The research methodology revealed a process to engage Hmong parents in discussing their perceptions about schools and their relationships with schools as well as classroom instruction.

Title: Southeast Asian Adolescents' Perceptions of Immigrant Parenting Practices.  Authors: Zha Blong Xiong, Daniel F. Detzner and Michael J. Cleveland. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2004.  Additional Source Information: Volume 5. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: In their countries of origin, immigrant youth are unlikely to question the age-old child-rearing practices of their elders;however, the parenting of adolescents in an adopted country can become a major source of family conflict.The purpose of this study is to investigate how Southeast Asian adolescents growing up in the United States perceive their parents’ practices in six areas of parenting responsibility identified by the National Extension Parent Education Model: caring for self, understanding, guiding, nurturing, motivating, and advocating. Four focus groups were conducted with 37 Southeast Asian (Cambodian, Hmong, Lao, and Vietnamese) adolescent boys and girls between the ages of 14 to19 years to ascertain how they perceived parenting behaviors. An analytic induction procedure was used to analyze transcripts from in-depth focus group discussions. Results indicate wide divergence between the idealized practices of the model, the parents’ actual practices, and adolescents’ perceptions of parenting practices. The study has important implications for the growing number of immigrant families from diverse cultures who are parenting adolescents in unfamiliar cultural contexts and for the educators,human service providers, and others who work with them.

Title: The Hmong 'Dab Pog Couple' Story and its Significance in Arriving at an Understanding of Hmong Ritual.  Author:  Dia Cha. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2003.  Additional Source Information: Volume 4. Pagination: 20 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: The presentation that follows will discuss the "Dab Pog Couple" story as it bears upon the origins of Hmong cultural tradition and embedded social values. Such a consideration will, at the same time, serve to introduce and elucidate many of the meanings behind, and values attached to, Hmong rituals in general and will thus provide a contribution to the understanding of these rituals and their relation to Dab Neeg (Folk Legends) within the Hmong cultural studies scholarly literature.

Title: Migration of Hmong to Rochester, Minnesota: Life in the Midwest.  Author: Cathleen Jo Faruque. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2003.  Additional Source Information: Volume 4. Pagination: 50 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This study was designed to investigate one of the newest refugee groups to the Midwestern United States, the Hmong refugees from Laos, China, Vietnam and Thailand. This study broadly examines how multigenerational Hmong families are adjusting and adapting to life in Rochester, Minnesota. The following questions guided this study: (1) What effect does non-voluntary migration have on the acculturation levels as measured by cultural awareness and ethnic loyalty of the Hmong in Rochester, Minnesota? (2) How do the Hmong perceive their host Anglo culture? (3) How do the Hmong adjust to their host social system in the United States? (4) How much do Hmong learn about their new environment? (5) How do the Hmong retain traditions within in the United States?

Title: Contradictions in Learning how to be Thai: A Case Study of a Young Hmong Woman.  Author: Tracy Pilar Johnson-Messenger. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2003.  Additional Source Information: Volume 4. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This paper comes from a three month period of fieldwork that I conducted in a green Hmong village in northern Thailand during the summer of 1998. During that time a crisis erupted between a local Thai government organization and the families of “Muban”1 in which one of my main informants, Ga, a 20 year old Hmong kindergarten teacher, played a major role. Although the conflict remained unresolved at the time I left Thailand, I believe that an analysis of the events, along with an analysis of Ga's role in the crisis, will illustrate the way in which education contributes to the production of new identities which social actors draw on to interpret ambiguous and contradictory social situations. I am not suggesting that Ga's project can ultimately be considered successful in effectively accomplishing such a transformation, but what I do believe her experience shows is the ways in which education, history and politics may impact the production and distribution of cultural meanings, which make such transformations possible. Moreover, the shifting identities members of a culture may craft out of different social discourses position them in and around such cultural meanings thus making it possible for themto pursue contradictory social aims within a cultural formation, and to possibly alter the way in which cultural resources are reproduced. After a brief introduction to the Hmong in northern Thailand and a discussion of some of the social reproduction theory as it has been considered within anthropology and more particularly educational anthropology, the paper will proceed to the crisis and its analysis.

Title: Hmong Americans: A Review of Felt Needs, Problems, and Community Development.  Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2003.  Additional Source Information: Volume 4. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This paper is intended to broadly explore both the achievements and needs and problems of the diverse Hmong American community across the United States, with a particular emphasis on felt needs and problems. Felt needs and problems are defined as needs and problems ”perceived by individuals experiencing the problem, may be equated with want and are phenomenological in character” (Cox, Erlich, Rothman & Tropman, 1984, p. 9). Taken from this perspective, among the problems and needs discussed in this paper are those that were identified by key informants or members of the Hmong American community, who live in the community and are well informed of the acute issues experienced by their fellow co-ethnics. Felt needs and problems, in addition to other needs, are very important issues for Hmong community gatekeepers, social workers and service providers to know and understand, in order to effectively work with a particular community (Cox, et al. 1984). The phenomena identified in this exploratory paper are intended to provide a departure point for researchers undertaking future relevant studies of social issues important to the Hmong community.

Title: Hmong of Germany: Preliminary Report on the Resettlement of Lao Hmong Refugees in Germany.  Author: Tou T. Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2003.  Additional Source Information: Volume 4. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This paper briefly describes the resettlement of Lao Hmong refugees in Germany since the fall of Laos in 1975. Data for this paper were collected during my two visits to the Hmong community of Gammertingen in southern Germany. Although, it has been known that there are Lao Hmong refugees living in Germany, literature about their resettlement in academic journals and the western media has been nonexistent. Therefore, information about their population, social, educational and economic status has not been available. While serving in the U.S. Army, I was fortunate to be stationed in Germany and had several opportunities to visits and interact with this isolate Hmong community. Therefore, I would like to share what little information I have gathered about this forgotten Hmong community. This paper provides a preliminary report on the resettlement process, population, social, educational and economic status of this community. Data were collected primarily through informal direct interviews with the head of household from four families of the original five families that resettled in Germany. As of thewriting of this paper, there is no other known Hmong community in Germany other than this Gammertingen Hmong community.

Title: Ethnic Tourism -- A Helicopter from "Huge Graveyard" to Paradise?: Social impacts of ethnic tourism development on the minority community in Guizhou Province, South-West China.  Author: Xiaoping Wu. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2000.  Additional Source Information: Volume 3. Pagination: 33 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Since the beginning of the 1980s, ethnic tourism has been one of the key industries promoted by the government of Guizhou province in Southwestern China. This industry has brought tremendous changes to the communities of local ethnic peoples in destination areas, especially in improving their economic life. However, although ethnic tourism does bring many positive results to local peoples, it also has a negative side as well. This paper investigates, from a local perspective, some of these impacts, taking the Miao/Hmong communities as a case study. The author contends that if ethnic governments and residents want to sustain their culture and society, they must have an awareness and understanding of both the positive and negative impacts of tourism when considering a project in their community.

Title: Warlord (From Harvesting Pa Chay's Wheat: The Hmong and America's Secret War in Laos).  Author: Keith Quincy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2000.  Additional Source Information: Volume 3. Pagination: 72 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: This is Chapter Eight (Warlord) of Harvesting Pa Chay's Wheat: The Hmong and America's Secret War in Laos, scheduled for publication in March 2000. The chapter chronicles the events that led to Vang Pao's rise to commander, and warlord, of the second military region. It also describes the political machine he created, a vast system of patronage and graft designed to co-opt clan notables (many of them potential political rivals) and, if this failed, a program of assassination for trouble-makers. Vang Pao also acquired wives from various clans to forge ties to clan leaders. To induce ordinary Hmong to support the war effort he spawned, with CIA money and sponsorship, a massive system of welfare that would eventually make more than a hundred thousand Hmong dependent on him for their survival.

Title: The passing of a Hmong Pioneer: Nhiavu Lobliayao (Nyiaj Vws Lauj Npliaj Yob), 1915-1999.  Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2000.  Additional Source Information: Volume 3. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File.  

Abstract: This article provides an obituary of Nhiavu Lobliayao died on June 16, 1999, in Nong Het, Xieng Khouang, Laos. He had been ill off and on since October 1998, and was reportedly paralyzed before his death. Nhiavu was a prominent member of the Lao Revolutionary Party and a key player during the war years (from the late 1940's to the 1970's.

Title: Literacy and L'Armee Clandestine: The Writings of the Hmong Military Scribes.  Author: John Duffy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2000.  Additional Source Information: Volume 3. Pagination: 32 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: While histories of Hmong literacy development in Laos have focused on the role of village schools, the arrival of missionary Christianity, and the development of various Hmong religious alphabets, one site for Hmong literacy development has been consistently overlooked: L'Armee Clandestine, or the Hmong "Secret Army." This article examines literacy development in the Hmong military, looking at the writings of Hmong military scribes. The article discusses how 1) literacy skills taught in other contexts, such as Laotian public schools, were further developed in the Hmong military, 2) a selected number of Hmong men were introduced through military service to English language and literacy, and 3) military scribes might appropriate literacy to address personal needs and aspirations.

Title: Recent Research and Publications on the Hmong: 1995-1999.  Author: Anne Frank. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 2000.  Additional Source Information: Volume 3. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: A bibliography of recently published research related to the Hmong.

Title: The Hmong and Health Care in Merced County, California.  Authors: Miriam Warner and Marilyn Mochel. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1998.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 2. Pagination: 30 pages. Format: PDF File.

Abstract: This article discusses the linguistic and cultural barriers the Hmong encounter when they attempt to access the health care delivery system in Merced County, California. The theoretical portion of the article discusses the concepts of culture, culture change, and some psychological issues that result from culture contact. Western biomedicine is viewed as a cultural system. Following this theoretical section, the cultural and linguistic barriers confronted by the Hmong when they attempt the access health care in Merced are discussed as well as some successful programs in the development of culturally sensitive health care. These include the Southeast Asian Surgical Coordination Team and the Culture Broker Team. The last part of the article covers, in some detail, a multidisciplinary program in cross-cultural health which is being implemented by health workers in Merced County.

Title: Practicing Modern Medicine: "A little medicine, a little neeb" (Review of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors and the Collision of Two Cultures by Anne Fadiman).  Author: Yeng Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1998.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 2. Pagination: 7 pages. Format: PDF File. 

Abstract: Book review of Review of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures by Anne Fadiman.

Title: Repatriation: How Safe Is It?  Author: Joseph Davy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1998.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 2. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File  

Abstract: This article provides updated information on the human rights climate in Laos as it pertains to the repatriation of Hmong refugees from Thailand. The disappearance of Vue Mai and the arrests or demotions of Hmong officals in the Lao government are an indication of the problems faced by Hmong both as repatriates and residents in Laos. The recent abuses against several hundred Hmong at the Ban Phan Thao repatriation site are described in detail.

Title: A Mosaic of Voices (Review of I Begin My Life All Over: The Hmong and the American Immigrant Experience by Lillian Faderman).  Author: Robin Vue-Benson. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1998.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 2. Pagination: 6 pages. Format: PDF File     

Abstract: Book Review of I Begin My Life All Over: The Hmong and the American Immigrant Experience by Lillian Faderman with Ghia Xiong.

Title: Recent Research and Publications on the Hmong: 1995-1998.  Author: Anne Frank. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1998.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 2. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: A bibliography of recently published research related to the Hmong.

Title: The Hmong Qeej: Speaking to the Spirit World.  Author: Gayle Morrison. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 17 pages. Format: PDF File  

Abstract: This investigation focuses on the unique communicative ability of the Hmong qeej, a free-reed multiple pipe musical instrument. Other forms of the qeej are used by various Southeast Asian cultures, but only the Hmong appear to use it to communicate in words with the spirit world. This study is based on oral interviews with Hmong qeejplayers, focusing on one master qeej player. Discussion reviews the origin legend of the qeej, legendary powers of the instrument, the mystery of the qeej language, training of a qeej player, qualifications of a master qeej player, genre of qeej songs, the role of the qeej in the funeral ceremony, and the qeej as the consumate Hmong cultural identifier.

Title: The Thousand-Year Myth: Construction and Characterization of Hmong.  Author: Mai Na M. Lee. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 23 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Coined only in the last twenty years, the phrase "Hmong means free" has been thoughtlessly promoted by both Hmong and non-Hmong alike. This phrase, however, simply manifests thousands of years of narrow, one-dimensional characterization of the Hmong. To historical oppressors of Hmong, "free" entails primitive savageness and inability to assimilate, or to enter the fold of what these outsiders defined as civilization. To outsiders, "free" also captures the essence of the warlike Hmong character, the Hmong's inability to compromise on a peaceful, rational level. The author disputes this simple portrayal of Hmong and points to a historical diversity rivaling that of any human group. To various degrees, Hmong have assimilated culturally and politically in both the Chinese and French Indo-Chinese context. In addition, Hmong who have chosen to isolate themselves politically did so in response to unfair practices against them. Throughout, Hmong character and political history is complex. For this reason, the author urges Hmong to be cautious about embracing such a narrow, unfounded definition for the word "Hmong."

Title: Por Thao's Funeral (documentary photo essay) - Text.  Author: Joseph Davy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: This article describes a Hmong funeral ceremony held in the United States.

Title: Por Thao's Funeral (documentary photo essay) - Photos.  Author: Joseph Davy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 3 pages. Format: PDF File  

Abstract: Photo essay accompanying an article that describes a Hmong funeral ceremony held in the United States.

Title: The Hmong Cultural Repertoire: Explaining Cultural Variation Within an Ethnic Group.  Author: Jeremy Hein. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 15 pages. Format: PDF File  

Abstract: Data on 382 Hmong in Laos and the United States reveal three types of cultural expertise: performing spiritual-medical healing; conducting life cycle rituals; and creating arts and crafts. Only 31 percent of this sample engage in one or more of the practices in this cultural repertoire. A mere 10 percent of the sample account for 54 percent of the 247 cultural practices. This pattern reveals the paradoxical relationship between ethnicity and culture. While all ethnic groups have a culture, there is considerable variation among members in their use of the group's cultural repertoire. This paper uses regression analysis to explain why some Hmong have more cultural practices than others. The results suggest that males have greater access to the Hmong cultural repertoire due their positions of authority in Laos, but that maternal cultural practices promote use of the repertoire by their children regardless of leadership status.

Title: Growing Up Hmong American: Truancy Policy and Girls.  Author: MayKao Hang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 54 pages. Format: PDF File  

Abstract: This article discusses truancy policies in school systems as they impact Hmong American girls.

Title: Recent Research and Publications.  Authors: Anne Frank and Robin Vue-Benson (compilers). Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File  

Abstract: A bibliography of recently published research related to the Hmong.

Title: Labor-Force Participation Among Southeast Asian Refugee-Immigrants: An Update on 1975 to 1984 Entrants.  Author: Howard Berkson. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 27 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article investigates the labor force participation of a co-hort of Southeast Asian refugees including Hmong in the United States.

Title: Hmong Mens' Adaptation to Life in the United States.  Author: Kou Yang. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File  

Abstract: This article describes a range of issues associated with the adaptation experiences of Hmong men in the United States.

Title: The Xiong Family: A Documentary Photo Essay (Narrative Text). Author: Joseph Davy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File  

Abstract: This article provides a photo essay of the daily lives of a Hmong family residing in Chicago.

Title: The Xiong Family: A Documentary Photo Essay. Author: Joseph Davy. Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 4 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This article provides a photo essay of the daily lives of a Hmong family residing in Chicago.

Title: Recent Research and Publications on the Hmong (1994-1997)  Authors: Anne Frank and Robin Vue-Benson (compilers). Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 10 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: A bibliography of recently published research related to the Hmong.

Title: Through the Spirits Door (Book Review).  Author: Robin Vue-Benson.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1997.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 2. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: Book review of Through the Spirit's Door: A True Story of the Hmong People at War, 1975-1980 by Hueson Yang.

Title: Upon Meeting the Ancestors: The Hmong Funeral Ritual in Asia and Australia.  Author: Catherine Falk.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1996.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 1. Pagination: 15 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: This paper will describe how the text affects its own tellingat a specific moment in the death rites of the Hmong people,drawing chronologically on seven accounts dating from the1890s to 1992 and ranging geographically from southern China to Thailand, Laos and Australia. To the Hmong --traditionally a migratory people -- the long song of death is the most important ritual text. It is transmitted orally anddoes not exist in written form. Since oral literature is verbal and auditory by its very nature it is supposedly free to change with each telling and each teller. The factors of both a long history of dispersal by migration and an oral tradition could indicate, superficially, that substantial change would occur in the oral literature of the Hmong overtime and place. In this paper, the evidence of translationsof the death song shows, however, a remarkable stability in these texts and from this it will be concluded that the very essence of Hmongness - of Hmong history, ethnicity and worldview - is invested in the stability of the texts of the death narrative, which is in essence a reflexive metacommentary on Hmong society. Finally, some of the indicators for change in the funeral ritual of the Hmong following their diaspora tothe West will be discussed.

Title: Cultural Identity In Post-Modern Society: Reflections on What is a Hmong?  Author: Gary Yia Lee.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1996.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 1. Pagination: 14 pages. Format: PDF File   Abstract: There is no easy answer to the question of what constitutes the cultural identity of a person or human group. When is someone a Hmong and what are the characteristics of such a person? How is this personal identity moulded into a shared image at the group level? Some may say that there is such a thing as a true Hmong, but many others will argue that there is no such a person today when many Hmong have been assimilated into the local cultures and languages ofthe majority societies in which they now live in China, Southeast Asia or in the West.To grapple with this issue, I will take a dialectic approach which will attempt to arrive at what is considered true by eliminating differences and by synthesising common grounds or potential similarities. I will begin by looking at different concepts from a collective perspective, followed by a similar examination at the personal level focusing on what I regard as being the major characteristics of the Hmong as individuals and as a people. I will then draw my conclusion in the light of the Hmong's diaspora and the globalisation of their contacts today.

Title: Visualizing Change Through Interactive Photography: Transforming Identities, Transforming Research    Author: Sharon Bays.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1996.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 1. Pagination: 12 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: This article describes a photo project involving members of the Hmong community in California.

Title:  Recent Research and Publications on the Hmong (1994-1996).   Author: Anne Frank.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1996.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 1. Pagination: 5 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: A bibliography of recently published research related to the Hmong.

Title:  Introduction to Hmong Studies Journal.  Author: Robin Vue-Benson.  Source: Hmong Studies Journal. Publisher Location: St. Paul, MN. Year: 1996.  Additional Source Information: Volume 1, Number 1. Pagination: 3 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: This short article introduces the first issue of the Hmong Studies Journal.

Journal of Southeast American Education and Advancement Articles 2006-2013

Title:  Book Review: Diversity in Diaspora: Hmong Americans in the Twenty-First Century by Mark Pfeifer, Monica Chiu and Kou Yang.  Author: Ma Vang.  Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2013.  Additional Source Information: Volume 8, Number 1. Pagination: 6 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Book review of Diversity in Diaspora: Hmong Americans in the Twenty-First Century, an anthology of articles pertaining to Hmong Americans.

Title: Navigating Multiple Worlds: A Qualitative Study of the Lived Experiences of Hmong Women Leaders.  Authors: Lena Moua and Jim Riggs.  Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2012.  Additional Source Information: Volume 7, Number 1. Pagination: 26 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: This article presents the findings from a narrative study that examined the leadership development and pathways of nine prominent Hmong American women leaders from Minnesota and California. Each of these women was able to break through the cultural and gender glass ceiling to become positional and influential leaders in mainstream American society. The study focused on the factors that contributed to the participants leadership development; strategies used in attaining and maintaining leadership roles; and barriers each participant encountered on her path to becoming a leader. Important findings included the impact of poverty, the prominent role of education, inner strength the women possessed, importance of networking and support systems, and strong role models. Other factors included familial responsibilities, gender disparities, racism and ageism. The conceptual frameworks of Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarule (1986), and Alon and Higgins (2005), were utilized to guide the analysis and presentation of each participants life journey, and show the intersections between culture and feminist epistemology. The narrative case study approach included in-depth interviews, collective story mapping and re-narration techniques to explore the lives of these women leaders. One overarching goal of the study and this article is to create a greater understanding of complex issues and impediments associated with leadership development, with the hope of beginning a dialog that will help facilitate policy changes regarding developing and supporting minority women in leadership roles.

Title: Book Review: The Latehomecomer by Kao Kalia Yang.  Author: Sarah Hansen.  Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 5, Number 1. Pagination: 8 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Book review of The Latehomecomer.

Title: Looking Gran Torino in the Eye: A Review.  Author: Ly Chong Thong Jalao.  Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2010.  Additional Source Information: Volume 5, Number 1. Pagination: 6 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: Film review of the Clint Eastwood movie, Gran Torino.

Title: Do I Look Up or Do I Look Down? Reflections of a Hmong American English Learner and Educator.  Author: Kay Vang.  Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2009.  Additional Source Information: Volume 4, Number 1. Pagination: 9 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: Drawing from my own schooling experiences as an English learner, I share my views and beliefs in relation to the deficit model, assimilation model, and caring model. I especially focus on experiences of English learners, as they are the fastest growing subgroup in the nation. I further share and discuss challenges that some EL students may experience at school along with some teacher perceptionsand attitudes.

Title: Supporting Hmong Newcomers Academic and Social Transition to Elementary School.  Authors: Martha Bigelow, Letitia Basford, Esther Smidt. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 3, Number 1. Pagination: 22 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: When elementary aged Hmong children were resettled in St. Paul Public Schools after the closing of the Wat Tham Krabok refugee camp in Thailand, their families largely enrolled them in either a Transitional Language Center or a Language Academy program. This study reports on the perceptions teachers and educational assistants had about how well these programs met the needs of this unique population of newcomers. Findings show that the Transitional Language Centers were better able to ease the adjustment to school for the Hmong newcomers because of the safe, bilingual environment they created.

Title: Are We There Yet? Examining the Principals Role in the Integration of Hmong Refugee Children into Elementary Schools.  Author: Kyla Wahlstrom.  Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 3, Number 1. Pagination: 19 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This paper examines the efforts of four elementary principals to create a welcoming and integrated culture for newly arrived Wat Tham Krabok refugee Hmong children. It reveals the accommodations and challenges made by the schools. It demonstrates that the effectiveness of a specialized program for newcomer refugee children necessitates careful planning and the involvement of staff members and school leaders.

Title: The Affective Consequences of Cultural Capital: Feelings of Powerlessness, Gratitude, and Faith among Hmong Refugee Parents.  Author: Bic Ngo. Source: Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 3, Number 1. Pagination: 16 pages. Format: PDF File 

Abstract: In education research, the analysis of the role of cultural capital has focused primarily on its role in parent involvement. Little attention has been paid to how cultural capital affects the attitudes or feelings of parents about their worth and roles as parents. In this article I examine the impact of the exclusionary characteristic of cultural capital on refugee Hmong parents from Wat Tham Krabok. I highlight themes of uncertainty, powerlessness, gratitude and faith that parents repeatedly raised when speaking about their childrens education. I suggest that paying attention to the affective emotiona lconsequences of cultural capital is critical for understanding the outlook of refugee Hmong parents on their childrens education.

Title: Cambodian, Hmong, Lao and Vietnamese Americans in the 2005 American Survey.  Author: Mark E. Pfeifer.  Source: Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 3, Number 1. Pagination: 21 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: The figures included in this short article are from the 2005 American Community Survey (ACS) released by the U.S. Census Bureau in late 2006. The 2005 ACS data set involves estimates based on surveys distributed to only a subset of the U.S. population and is thus problematic in some respects. This concise article is intended to provide basic 2005 demographic, educational and socioeconomic data related to Cambodian, Hmong, Lao and Vietnamese in the United States. It is not intended as a comprehensive explanatory research paper of factors underlying contemporary demographic, educational, and socioeconomic trends in these four ethnic communities. These topics should ideally be the focus of additional quantitative and qualitative research. Most of the figures used in this article are from the “Cambodian alone or in any combination,” “Hmong alone or in any combination,” “Lao alone or in any combination,” and “Vietnamese alone or in any combination population” profiles including in the 2005 ACS.

Title: Hmong Parents Critical Reflections on Their Childrens Heritage Language Maintenance.  Author: Terry Yang.  Source: Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2008.  Additional Source Information: Volume 3, Number 1. Pagination: 18 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: This study utilizes a qualitative method to explore the critical reflections of Hmong parents helping their children maintain their native language. Specifically, it examines parents thoughts, feelings and experiences related to Hmong language maintenance. Findings reveal that Hmong parents worry about their children losing their ability to speak their native language. They believe that maintaining the Hmong language provides advantages in achieving academic success, attaining careers, and continuing to serve as role models in the community. Parents stressed the need to use Hmong at home in order to help their children develop and maintain the language. They reported some successes in doing so, while acknowledging several challenges.

Title: Book Review: Up Against Whiteness: Race, School, and Immigrant Youth.  Author: Chang Pu.  Source: Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement. Publisher Location: San Antonio, TX. Year: 2007.  Additional Source Information: Volume 2, Number 1. Pagination: 7 pages. Format: PDF File

Abstract: Book review of Up Against Whiteness by Stacey Lee.